Pursuing Followers

11th January 2025 By Simon

Words for to follow, pursue and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*sekʷetor = to follow
Old Irish (Goídelc)	seichithir = to follow, persue sechem = following, imitating
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	seichithir sechethar, sechtir = to follow, persue sechem, sechim = following, imitating sechimthid, seichteóir, seichthid = follower
Irish (Gaeilge)	seicheamh = following, taking after, imitating, sequence, progression fosheicheamh = subsequence

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *sékʷetor (to be following), from *sekʷ- (to follow) [source]. Words from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Gaulish (?) and Latin segusius (a hunting dog) include: sabuxo (hound) in Galician, segugio (hound, bloodhound, private eye, sleuth) in Spanish, and sabujo (hound, submissive person) in Portuguese [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include: associate, sector, sequence, society, (to) sue, suit, suite and subsequent in English, suivre (to follow) in French, sèkti (to observe, track down, follow, spy on) in Lithuanian, and seguir (to follow, continue, keep (on)) in Spanish [source].

Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	sewye, sewé, sywé = to follow, persue
Cornish (Kernewek)	sewya = to follow, result holyans = consequence, outcome, result, sequel

Etymology: from English (to) sue [source], which used to mean to follow or court, and comes from Middle English seuen (to follow, walk behind, be guided), from Anglo-Norman suer, siwer (to follow), from Old French sivre (to follow after), from Vulgar Latin *sequere (to follow), from Latin sequī, from sequor (to follow, pursue, succeed), from Proto-Italic *sekʷōr (to follow, come/go after), from Proto-Indo-European *sekʷ- (to follow) [source].

Proto-Celtic	linati = to stick, cling ati-linati = to adhere, stick to, cling
Old Irish (Goídelc)	lenaid [ˈl͈ʲenɨðʲ] = to stick, cling, follow, remain, continue, survive lenamain = adhering, clinging, following ad·len = to follow, adhere
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lena(i)d = to remain, continue, survive, pursue, persist, cleave to, cling to, adhere to, stay with, follow len(a)main = adhering, clinging to, stuck in, following, pursuing ad·len = to follow, adhere
Irish (Gaeilge)	lean [lʲan̪ˠ] = to follow, continue, remain, endure leantach = consecutive, continuing leantóir = follower, trailer leanúint = following, persuit, adherence, continuation leanúnach = follower, pursuer, successor, continuant, continuous, successive leanúnachas = continuity, attachment, faithfulness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lean [l̪ʲɛn] = follow, pursue, ensue, succeed, follow, continue, go on, stick to leanachd [l̪ʲɛnəxg] = following, pursuing, pursuit, followers, ensuing, succeeding, continuing leanadail [l̪ʲɛnədal] = attendant leanailteach [l̪ʲɛnnaldʲəx] = adhesive, sticking, sticky, dogged, persistent, tenacious leanailteachd [l̪ʲɛnaldʲəxg] = continuity, perseverance, tenacity, adhesiveness, adhesion leanaltas = perseverance
Manx (Gaelg)	lhian(t) = to follow lhiantag = attachment lhiantyn = following lhiantyn da/gys = to cleave (to) lhiantyn hug = to attach, obsess lhiantyn huggey = to take after lhiantyn rish = to cleave, persevere, pursue, stick to, cling lhiantys = adherence, attachment lhiantynys = adhesion, attachment
Proto-Brythonic	*llɨnad = to stick, cling
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	linisant = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llynu = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear edlynv, eddlynu, edlynu = to smear, besmear, daub, slabber, befoul
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llynaf, llynu = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear edlynaf, edlynu = to smear, besmear, daub, slabber, befoul

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂leyH- (to smear) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include lime, liniment, loam and delete in English, lijm (glue) in Dutch, limon (silt) in French, Leim (glue) in German, limo (mud, slime, silt) in Italian, and lim (glue) in Swedish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*solgos = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	olhau = to follow, trace
Welsh (Cymraeg)	olhaf, olhau = to follow, trace
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	holye = to come after, to follow
Cornish (Kernewek)	holya = to follow holyans = sequence holyer, holyores = follower
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	hol = (act of) following
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	heul = following heultaff = to follow
Breton (Brezhoneg)	heul [høːl] = continuation, cortege, parade, escort, procession heuli(a)ñ [ˈhøljã] = to follow heul(iad) [ˈhø.ljat] = procession, line, sequence, continuation, series, train heuliadur = extension heuliata = to continue heuliataer = follower heulier = follower, adept, minion heulius = conformist

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *selgʰ- (to follow) [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Dictionnaires bilingues de Francis Favereau / Edition Skol Vreizh, TermOfis

Larches

8th January 2025 By Simon

Words for larch (tree) and related things in Celtic languages.

The larch is a coniferous tree of the genus Larix with deciduous leaves in fascicles (bundles, clusters) [source]. There are various species of larches found in Europe, Siberia, Canada, the USA, China and Japan [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Irish (Gaeilge)	learóg = larch crann learóige = larch tree
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	learag [l̪ʲɛrag] = larch craobh-learaig = larch tree learach [l̪ʲɛrəx] = larch wood learagach [l̪ʲɛragəx] = abounding in larch trees
Manx (Gaelg)	lhiarrag = larch larsh = larch
Welsh (Cymraeg)	lar(t)s = larch (tree), made of larch-wood, larchen, consisting of larches llarsbren = larch tree llar(s)wydd = larches, larch trees
Cornish (Kernewek)	lar(ch)wedhen = larch

Etymology: from Ancient Greek λάριξ (lárix – larch, Venice turpentine*), possibly from Gaulish *devro (oak?), from Proto-Celtic *daru (oak), from Proto-Indo-European *dóru (tree). The Welsh and Cornish words, and larsh in Manx, come from the same roots via English [source].

*Venice turpentine = A thick substance made from the tree resin of the European larch (Larix decidua), formerly used as a component in the oil paintings to create glossy, translucent glazes [source].

Alternatively, according to Vitruvius (a Roman architect and engineer), larix in Latin was named after Larignum, a town in the Alps surrounded by larch trees which the Romans, lead by Julius Ceasar, beseiged in the 1st century AD when they refused to provide supplies [source].

The English word larch comes from the same roots, via early modern German Larche/Lärche (larch), from Middle High German larche, from Old High German larihha, from Latin larix (larch), from Ancient Greek λάριξ [source].

Words from Latin larix (larch) in other languages include: làrix in Catalan, lariks in Dutch, Lärche in German, ლარიქსი (lariksi) in Georgrian, mélèze in French and lærk in Danish, all of which mean larch (tree) [source].

Larch in Breton is melez, which comes from French mélèze (larch), which comes from Gaulish *mel- (larch) and Latin larix (larch) [source].

Dutiful Laws

30th December 202430th December 2024 By Simon

Words for duty, debt, law, rule and related things in Celtic languages.

Scottish Parliament / Pàrlamaid na h-Alba / Scots Pairlament

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*dligeti = to be entitled to, be obligated to
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dligid = to deserve, merit, be entitled to
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dligid, dleagaid = to be entitled to, have a right to, be owed, deserve, merit
Irish (Gaeilge)	dligh [dʲlʲɪɟ/dʲlʲiː] = to be entitled to, have a right to, deserve, merit, be incumbent on, be liable to, ought to
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dligh [dli] = owe, be due dleas [dles] = deserve, merit, due dleasach [dlesəx] = deserving, meriting dleasadh [dlesəɣ] = (act of) deserving, meriting dleasannas [dlesən̪ˠəs] = obligation, duty dleasanta [dlesən̪ˠdə] = deserving, meriting dleasnach [dlesn̪ˠəx] = dutiful dleastanas [dlesdənəs] = obligation, duty
Manx (Gaelg)	toill = to deserve, will toillchin = to deserve, earn, merit, reward; derserving, worthy toillchinagh = deserving, meritorious toillchinys = desert, merit toillchyn = to deserve, merit toilliu = to deserve, earn, merit; deserving, worthy
Proto-Brythonic	*dɨlɣɨd = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	deleu, dyly, dylu = to be obliged to, ought, be indebted, behove, owe, be in debt, have a right to, claim, merit, deserve, posses, claim from
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dylu [ˈklɛðɨ̞v/ˈkleːðɪv] = to be obliged to, ought, be indebted, behove, owe, be in debt, have a right to, claim, merit, deserve, posses, claim from (other forms include: dylaf, dylÿaf, dlyaf, dylÿu, dlyu, dleu, deleu)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	dely, dylly = to owe, deserve
Cornish (Kernewek)	tyli = to owe, pay, reward tylva = checkout, till
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dleout = must
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dleout [ˈdleː.ut] = to have to, must, owe dleañ = to have to, must, owe; judicious

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *dʰlégʰ-ti/*dʰl̥gʰ-énti, from *dʰlegʰ- (to beat, strike) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots possibly include dolog (thing, object, affair, business, task, fate) in Hungarian, dług (debt, account payable) in Polish, долг (dolg – debt, duty, obligation) in Russian, and dlh (debt) in Slovak [source].

Proto-Celtic	*dligetom = duty, debt
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dliged, dligeth [ˈdʲlʲiɣʲeð] = law, principle, rule, theory, dictum dlecht = lawful dligthech = lawful, right
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dliged, dligeth, dleged = law, principle, rule, norm, dictum, reason, argument, reckoning, nature, condition, kind, manner dligedach = lawful dligemnas = lawful right dligthech = regular, right, lawful, law-abiding, rational, reasonable, just, righteous dligthe(m)nach, dligtheanuigh = lawgiver dligtheoir = lawyer, man of law
Irish (Gaeilge)	dlí [dʲlʲiː] = law, divine precept, scientific principle, litigation dlíodóir = lawyer dlíodóireacht = practice of law, practising law dlíthí = litigant dlíthíoch = litigious dlíthíocht = litigiousness dlíthiúil = legal, juridicial, lawful, litigious dlíthiúilacht = legality, lawfulness dleacht = due, lawful right, royalty, patent dleathach = lawful, legal, valud, genuine, just, proper dleathaíocht = legality, justice, propriety
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dlighe [dli.ə] = ordinance (in law), due dligheach [dli.əx] = lawful, legitimatem rightful, right, due, dutiful, just dligheachas [dli.əxəs] = lawful right, jurisdiction, validity dligheachd [dli.əxg] = legality, royalty (payment) dligheadh [dli.əɣ] = (act of) owing, being due, stipend dlighear [dli.ər] = lawyer, creditor dligheil [dli.al] = legitimate, lawful, rightful
Proto-Brythonic	*dlɨɣed = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	delehet, deleed, dylyet, dlyet, dylet = debt, due, claim, right, demand, oblitation, duty dylyedawc, dylyedauc, dylyedaỽc dyledawg = noble, privileged, dignified, illustrious, rightful dyledogaeth, dlyedogaeth = nobility, lordship, proprietorship dylyedus, dyledus = due, proper, meet, lawful, worthy, just, necessary, requisite, owing, in debt, indebted dyledwr = debtor, defaulter, trespasser
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dyled [ˈdəlɛd] = debt, due, claim, right, demand, oblitation, duty, service, heritage, estate, worth, privilege, sins, transgressions, trespasses [also written dylêd, dled, dylyed, dlyed] dyled(i)ach = trifling debts, dribbling debts dyledu = to owe, be due, debit, make due dyledog = indebted, in debt, due, noble, privileged, dignified, illustrious, debtor dyl(y)edus = due, proper, meet, lawful, worthy, just, necessary, requisite, owing, in debt, indebted, noble, privileged, dignified, reasonable, sensible, understanding dyledwr = debtor, defaulter, trespasser
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dle = due, owing dleat = moral duty, tax
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dle = due, owing, debt dlead = moral duty, tax dleatour = debtor dleapl = liable dleoniezh = ethics d(e)leour = debtor, creditor

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *dligeti (to owe, be indebted to) – see above [source].

Proto-Celtic	*ká(g)ni- = tribute, law
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cáin [kaːnʲ] = law, regulation, rule, fine, tax, tribute, legal due
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cáin, cain = law, regulation, rule, fine, tax, tribute
Irish (Gaeilge)	cáin [kɑːnʲ/kaːnʲ] = law, regulation, rule, due, tribute, fine, penalty, impost, tax cáinaisnéis = budget cáinaisnéiseach = budgetary
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	càin [kaːn̪ʲ] = duty, tariff, tribute, fine; body of laws (archaic) càin-aisneis = budget càineach, càinear, càiniche = tax/excise collector, tax gatherer càineachadh [kaːn̪ʲəxəɣ] = (act of) imposing a tax

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *keh₂/₃ǵ-n- [source]. Words from the same root may include kázeň (discipline) in Czech, kaźń (execution, torture, torment) in Polish, and kázeň (sermon, discipline) in Slovak [source].

Proto-Celtic	rextus = rule, law kom-rextus = law (?)
Celtiberian	Retukeno = personal name
Gaulish	Rextugenos = personal name
Old Irish (Goídelc)	recht, rect [r͈ʲext] = law rechtach = law-giving rechtaid = lawgiver rechtaide = legal rechtaigid = to legislate rechtaire = steward rechtas = stewardship rechtge = government rechtmar = lawful
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	recht, rect, reacht = law, authority, rule, right, lawfulness rechtach = just, equitable, law-giving rechtaid, rechtaidh = judge, lawgiver rechtaide = legal, pertaining to the law, lawful rechtaigid = to legislate rechtaire, rechtorairge = steward, baliff, administrator, judge (?) rechtas, rechtus, rechtcus = authority, administration, stewardship rechtge, rechtga = government, authority, rule, regin rechtmar = lawful, legitimate
Irish (Gaeilge)	reacht [ɾˠaxt̪ˠ] = law, statute, accepted rule reachtach = law-giving, legislative reachtaigh = to legislate, enact, decree reachtaíocht = legislation reachtaire = controller, administrator, steward, Rector, auditor, master of ceremonies reachtas = administration, stewardship reachtmhar = lawful, legitimate reachtóir = lawgiver, legislator reachtúil = statutory, statute
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	reachd [r̪ˠɛxg] = decree, statue, edict reachdach [r̪ˠɛxgəx] = compulsory reachdachadh [r̪ˠɛxgəxəɣ] = (act of) legislating, law-making, legislature reachdadair [r̪ˠɛxgədɪrʲ] = lawmaker, legislator reachdadaireachd [r̪ˠɛxgədɪrʲəxg] = legislature reachdail [r̪ˠɛxgdal] = legislative, statutory reachdas [r̪ˠɛxgəs] = legislation
Proto-Brythonic	rreiθ = rule, law kuβ̃reiθ = law (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	reyth, reith, rhaith = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict cyfreith, kiureith, kefreyth [ˈkəvrai̯θ] = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhaith [r̥ai̯θ] = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict rhaithgor = jury cyfraith [ˈkəvrai̯θ] = law, legislation, statute, custom, usage, jurisprudence
Cornish (Kernewek)	reyth = regular, right, religious law reythennek, reythednek = statutory reythen = statute reythe = to authorise, codify, empower, entitle, qualify reythes = authorised, empowered, enacted, entitled, qualified reythyans = enactment, jurispridence, lawmaking, legislation
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	reith = law
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	rez, reiz = law rezder = law
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reizh = right, just, correct, order, normal reizhad = regular reizhadenn = rectification, corrected reizhadur = adjustment reizhan = to correct, adapt, regular, initiate reizhded = correctness, rectitude, normality reizhder = regularity reizhegezh = legitimacy reizhek = legitimate reizhekaat = to legitimize reizhennan = to regulate reizhus = legal

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₃reǵ- (to straighten, to righten) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include rail, rank, realm, regime, rule and regulation in English, rę́žti (to stretch) in Lithuanian, règle (rule, regulation) in French, and regla (rule, ruler) in Spanish [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	ríagal, ríagul = rule
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ríagal, riagoil, riaguil = rule, authority
Irish (Gaeilge)	riail [ɾˠiəlʲ] = rule, regulation, principle, sway, authority, order rialachán = regulation rialúchán = regulation, control
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	riaghail [r̪ˠiə.al] = rule, govern, administer riaghailt [r̪ˠiə.əldʲ] = rule, regulation, government riaghailteach [r̪ˠiə.əl̪ˠdʲəx] = regular, according to rule, orderly riaghailteachadh [r̪ˠiə.aldʲəxəɣ] = (act of) formulating, regulating, adjusting, adjustment riaghailteachas [r̪ˠiə.aldʲəxəs] = regulatory riaghailteachd = regularity, moderation riaghailtear [r̪ˠiə.aldʲər] = regulator riaghailtearachd [r̪ˠiə.aldʲərəxg] = administration riaghal [r̪ˠiə.əl̪ˠ] = rule
Manx (Gaelg)	reill = code, dominion, governance, policy, principle, reign; to charge, govern, order, regulate, rule reilley = to regulate, reign, rule; ruling reilleyder = governor, regulator, ruler, straight edge reilt = normal, to rule reiltagh = director, ordinal, president, rector, ruler; decisive, ruling, regular reiltys = governance, rule, kingdom, dominion, government
Proto-Brythonic	*rreɣol = rule (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ryol, reol, rhwol = rule, regulation, procedure, order, custom, pattern, government, dominion rhyolaeth, reolaeth = rule, control, management, authority, discipline rwyoli, reoli, ryoli, rhywoli = to rule, control, direct, govern roliad = rule, control, government ryolus, reolus, rheolus, rreolys = regular, orderly, disciplined, moderate, consant
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rheol [ˈr̥eː.ɔl] = rule, regulation, procedure, order, custom, pattern, government, dominion rheol(i)aeth = rule, control, management, authority, discipline rheoli = to rule, control, direct, govern rheolaidd = regular, regulated, orderly rheoliad = rule, control, government rheolus = regular, orderly, disciplined, moderate, consant
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	reol, rowl, rovle = rule, government rowler = ruler, governor
Cornish (Kernewek)	rewl, rowl = regulation, rule rewlya, rowlya = to control, regulate, rule rewlyades, rowlyades = ruler (f) rewlyas, rowlyas = ruler (m) rewlys = regular
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	regul = rule, regulation
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	reul, reol, reoll = rule, regulation reulenn = rule reulennaff = to regulate
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reol = rule, principle, regime reolennadur = regulation reolennan = to regulate reoliadur = regulation reoliata = to regulate reoliek = regular reolius = regulatory

Etymology: from Latin rēgula (rule, bar, ruler), from regō (I rule, govern, direct, guide, steer, control), from Proto-Italic *regō, from Proto-Indo-European *h₃réǵeti (to be straightening, to be setting upright), from *h₃reǵ- (to straighten, to righten) – see above [source].

Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lagh [l̪ˠɤɣ] = law laghachd [l̪ˠɤɣəxg] = legislation laghadh [l̪ˠɤɣəɣ] = legalising, legalisation laghaiche [l̪ˠɤɣɪçə] = lawyer, solicitor laghaichte [l̪ˠɤɣɪçdʲə] = legalised laghail [l̪ˠɤɣal] = legal, lawful, litigious, argumentative laghaileachd [l̪ˠɤɣaləxg] = lawfulness, legality
Manx (Gaelg)	leigh = enactment, law, respect leighagh = legal, litigious leighder = lawyer, advocate, attorney, barrister, council leighoil = lawful, legal, legislative, legitimate

Etymology: from English law, or Middle English lawe/laȝe (law, regulation, morality), or Old English lagu (law, rule, right), all of which come from Old Norse lǫg (law, rule, right), from Proto-Germanic *lagą (situation, law, a settled amount), from Proto-Indo-European *legʰ- (to lie [down]). The English words lie and lay come from the same roots [source].

Swords & Spikes

20th December 202420th December 2024 By Simon

Words for sword and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kladiwos = sword
Gaulish	*kladyos = sword
Old Irish (Goídelc)	claideb = sword
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	claideb, claidem, claidhmhe, cloideb = (slashing) sword
Irish (Gaeilge)	claíomh [kl̪ˠiːvˠ/kl̪ˠiːw] = sword claíomhchruthach = sword-shaped, xiphoid claíomhóir = swordsman claíomhóireacht = swordsmanship
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	claidheamh [kl̪ˠajəv] = sword claidheamhach [kl̪ˠajəvəx] = pertaining to or abounding in swords claidheamhair [kl̪ˠajəvɛrʲ] = swordsman claidheamhaireachd [kl̪ˠajəvɛrʲəxg] = fencing, sword-fighting, swordsmanship, sparring claidheamhan [kl̪ˠajəvan] = little sword, icicle, snot, door-bolt, latch
Manx (Gaelg)	cliwe = sword cliweagh = sword-like, ensiform cliweaght = swordplay cliweder = swordsman cliwederahgt = fencing cliwederys = swordmanship cliwedeyr = fencer cliwenys = swordsmithing, sword-making
Proto-Brythonic	*klėðɨβ̃ = sword
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	clety(u)w, cled(d)yf = sword cledyual, cledyf(u)al = sword-stroke or thrust cletifhir, cledyfhir = having a long sword cledyfawt, cleddyfawd = sword-stroke or thrust, gash, wound cletyuawc, cledyfawc = armed with sword(s), swords, sharp, cruel
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cleddyf [ˈklɛðɨ̞v/ˈkleːðɪv] = sword, blade, brace (on a door or wall) cleddyfaeth = swordsmanship, fencing cleddyfu, cleddyfa(f) = to slay with the sword, to put to the sword cleddyfal = sword-stroke or thrust cleddyfan = dagger, poniard, hanger cleddyfod = sword-stroke cleddyfwr = swordsman cleddyfydd = sword-cutler, sword-smith, swordsman cleddyfyddiaeth = swordsmanship, art of fencing
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	cledhe, cledhé, cledha = sword
Cornish (Kernewek)	kledha = sword kledhya = fencing
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	clezef(f), cleze = sword
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kleze [ˈkleː.ze] = sword, glaive klezen/klezeñ = sword klezeiad = ironworker, gladiator klezeniata = ironworker klezenour = swordsman

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *kladeti (to stab, dig), from Proto-Indo-European *kl̥h₂dʰ-é-ti, from *kelh₂- (to beat, strike) [source].

Words from the same Proto-Celtic roots, via Gaulish *kladyos, possibly include gladius (sword, murder, death, a gladiatorial contest, swordfish) in Latin, gladiator, gladiolus and glaive (a light lance with a long, sharp-pointed head) in English, esglai (fright) in Catalan, ghiado (sword, dagger, knife, frost, cold) in Italian, gládio (sword, power, strength) in Portuguese, and gladio (bulrush, cattail) in Spanish [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include calamity, clade, clergy, cleric, clerk, coup, and glaive in English, clava (club) in Spanish, колоть (to split, cleave, break, stab) in Russian, and words for to dig and bury and related things in Celtic languages [source].

Proto-Celtic	*kolgā = a stabbing weapon, like a dagger
Old Irish (Goídelc)	colg = sword, pointed thing
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	colg, calg, cailg = anything pointed, piercing instrument, sword, rapier, sting, stabe, thrust, awn of barley or wheat colgach = fierce, bristling colgad = act of piercing colgdae = pointed, fierce
Irish (Gaeilge)	colg [ˈkɔl̪ˠəɡ] = sword (literary), blade, point (of sword), beard, awn, bristle, dorsal fin colgach = bearded, bristling, angry colgaí = prickliness, irritability colgán = sharp point, prickle, bristle, sword-fish
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	colg [kɔl̪ˠɔg] = pig bristle, beard of barley, needle (of conifer), prickle colgach [kɔl̪ˠɔgəx] = bristly, prickly colgachd [kɔl̪ˠɔgəxg] = prickliness
Manx (Gaelg)	caulg = barb, bristle, prickle, ruffle caulgagh = barbed, bearded, bristly, prickly caulgid = bristliness, prickliness; snappish, snappishness
Proto-Brythonic	*kolɣ = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	col, coly, kola = awn, beard of corn, husks, chaff, spike, prickles, sting, hinge
Welsh (Cymraeg)	col, coly, cola [kɔl] = awn, beard of corn, husks, chaff, spike, prickles, sting, hinge
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	col, culu, culhu = any projecting body or pointed hill, a peak, promintory, awn, beard of corn
Cornish (Kernewek)	kolgh = spike
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	colch = awn, beards of cereal
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kolc’h = awn, beards of cereal

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *kelh₂- (to beat, break) – see above [source].

Awn [ɔːn] = the bristle or beard of barley, oats, grasses, etc. or any similar bristlelike appendage – see below [source].

Gritty Gravel

11th November 202411th November 2024 By Simon

Words for gravel, grit and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*griyano- = gravel
Old Irish (Goídelc)	grïan [ˈɡʲrʲi.an] = gravel, sand, river bottom, sea floor grindell = gravel, lake bed, sea bed
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	grian, grían = gravel, sand, sea or river bottom, basis, foundation, earth, land grenach, grenaig = gravel grindell, grinnell, grinneal = sea or lake bed, gravel, bedrock, foundation, floor, bottom
Irish (Gaeilge)	grean [ɟɾʲan̪ˠ] = gravel, grit, coarse sand; to engrave grian = (sea, lake, river) bottom, earth, surface grianach = gravelly greanach = gravel, gravelly spoil, gritty greanadh = engraving, shapeliness, shape, figure greanadóir = engraver greanadóireacht = engraving greanchloch = gritstone, millstone grineall = (sea, lake, river) bed, bedrock, depth, foundation
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	grean [grʲɛn̪] = (river / lake) bed, gravel, coarse sand grean-aibhne = riverbed grinneal [grʲin̪ʲəL] = gravel, grit, (river / sea) bottom grinnealach = deep, gulfy, gravelly, sabulous (sandy or gritty) grinnealachd = grittiness
Manx (Gaelg)	grineen = bead, granule, grit, pinch grineenagh = gritty, grained, grainy, granulated, granulous grineenid = grittiness
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	graean, grayan, graeeyn = gravel, coarse sand, shingle, grit, grain, granule graenauc, graeanog, graianoc = gravelly, full of gravel, harsh, grating
Welsh (Cymraeg)	graean [ˈɡreɨ̯.an / ˈɡrei̯.an] = gravel, coarse sand, shingle, grit, grain, granule grae(a)nog = gravelly, full of gravel, harsh, grating graeanu = to (spread) gravel (over), to granulate, scour, grit

Etymology: uncertain, possibly related to Proto-Celtic *grāwā (gravel, pebbles) – see below [source].

Proto-Celtic	*grāwā = gravel, pebbles
Irish (Gaeilge)	griothal = gravel, gravelly soil griothalach = gravelly, gritty
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	grothal = gravel
Proto-Brythonic	*grọw = gravel, pebbles
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	gro = gravel, shingle
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gro = gravel, shingle grodir, gro dir = gravelly land, sandy soil, grave
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gro [ɡroː] = gravel, shingle, gravelly shore, strand grobwll = gravel pit, grave grodir = gravelly land, sandy soil, grave
Old Cornish	grou = gravel, sand
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	grow = gravel, sand
Cornish (Kernewek)	grow = gravel growan = granite growanen = pebble growen = gravel
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	grean, grouan = gravel grouanec = gravelly, grave pit groanenn = piece of gravel
Breton (Brezhoneg)	grouan [ˈɡruːãn] = gravel grouanañ = to engrave grouaneg = gravelly, grave pit grouanenn = piece of gravel grouanus = gravelly

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *gʰroh₁weh₂, from *gʰreh₁w- (to grind).
Words from the same Proto-Celtic roots include grava (gravel) in Catalan, grève (flat, sandy land along the sea or a large river) in French, grava (gravel) in Spanish, and grave (gravel, shore, gravelly ground) in Occitan [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include: grit, groat, grout and gruel in English, Grieß (semolina) in German, grjót (coarse stones, rubble) in Icelandic, gryt (a badger’s sett, a fox’s den) in Swedish, riutta (reef) in Finnish, and grúodas (frozen mud or earth) in Lithuanian [source].

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	graibél = gravel, sand
Irish (Gaeilge)	gairbhéal = gravel gairbhéalach = gravelly gairbhéalta = gravelled
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	greabhal = gravel
Manx (Gaelg)	garvel = gravel
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	grafel, gravael, gravel = gravel
Welsh (Cymraeg)	graf(a)el = gravel grafelu, grafaelio = to sprinkle with gravel, make sore by chafing graf(a)eliog = gravelly

Etymology: from English gravel or Middle English gravel / gravail(le) (sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles), from Old French gravele (gravel), a diminutive of grave (gravel, seashore), from Medieval Latin grava, possibly from Gaulish grava, from Proto-Celtic grāwā (gravel, pebbles), from Proto-Indo-European *gʰroh₁weh₂, from *gʰreh₁w- (to grind) [source].

Deeply Profound

16th October 202416th October 2024 By Simon

This post peers into the depths of some deeply profound words in the Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic	dubnos (adj) = deep dubnos (noun) = world Dubnowalos = a male given name* – “world prince / chief” Dubnogenos = a male given name* – “world born / family”
Gaulish	dumnos = deep Dubnorīx = a male given name – “world king”
Primitive Irish	ᚇᚑᚋᚅᚌᚓᚅ (domngen), ᚇᚑᚋᚅᚌᚔᚅᚅ (domnginn) = male given names
Old Irish (Goídelc)	domain = deep, profound, depth(s), sea-floor fudumain = profound(ity), depth Domnall = a male given name Domaingen = a male given name
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	domain, doimin, domun, domuin = deep, profound, intense, thoughtful, depth(s) doimnigid = to deepen, lower domne, domnae = depth(s) domun = the world, the earth Domnall = a male given name
Irish (Gaeilge)	domhain [d̪ˠɑinʲ/d̪ˠoːnʲ] = depth, deep, abyss, inmost part, profound, sunken, hollow, low-pitched, far, late domhainiascaireacht = deep-sea fishing domhainmhachnamh = deep thought, deep reflection doimhneacht = depth, deep place doimhnigh = to deepen doimhniúchan = (act of) deepening domhan = earth, world Domhnall, Dónall = male given names
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	domhain [dõ.ɪn̪ʲ] = deep, profound domhaineachd [dõ.ɪn̪ʲəxg] = depth, deep, deepness, profundity domhainteachd [dõ.ɪn̪ʲdʲəxg] = abstruseness domhan [dõ.an] = universe, world Dòmhnall = a male given name
Manx (Gaelg)	dowin = deep(ly), deep-rooted, involved, low, profound, secretive, thorough, penetrating diunaghey = to deepen diunid = deep, depth, gulf, rootedness dowan = world, earth, universe, cosmos
Proto-Brythonic	duβn/dumno = deep Duβnowal = a male given name* Duβnoɣen = a male given name*
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	duuin, dofn = deep Dumnagual = a male given name
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	dowyn, duvin, dwvyn, dwfyn, dwuyn = deep, dense dyfnu, dyfnaf = to become accustomed (to), be familiar (with) dyfyn(n)der, dyuynder, dewfynder = depth(s), deepness dyfnddysc = erudite, profound, erudition, deep learning dyuynvor = deep sea, main, ocean dyfynhau = to deepen, dig, excavate, intensify Dyuynwal, Dyvynwal, Dyfynwal = male given names*
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dwfn, dyfn [dʊvn] = deep, dense, mysterious, intense, serious, profound; depth(s), deep waters, abyss, void; world, earth dyfnu = to become accustomed (to), be familiar (with), suck dyfnder = depth(s), deepness, bottom, thickness, abyss dyfnddysg = erudite, profound, erudition, deep learning dyfnfor = deep sea, main, ocean dyfnhau = to deepen, dig, excavate, intensify Dyfnaint = Devon Dyfnwal = a male given name Dyfnien = a male given name
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	down = deep, profound, low downder = depth
Cornish (Kernewek)	down = deep downder = depth downfria = to deep-fry downhe = to deepen downrewi = to deep-freeze
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	dumn = deep
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	doun, don = deep dounhat = to deepen do(u)nder = depth
Breton (Brezhoneg)	don [dɔ̃ːn] = deep, hollow (plate, dish), serious (air) donaat = to deepen donañ [ˈdɔ̃ː.nã] = to deepen donded [ˈdɔ̃n.det] = depth donder [ˈdɔ̃n.dɛr] = depth Dunvel = a male given name

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *dʰubʰnós (deep), from *dʰewbʰ- (hazy, unclear, dark, deep) [source]. Words from the same roots include deep and dip in English, tief (deep, low) in German, dopen (to dip, immerse, name) in Dutch, dùgnas (bottom, background) in Lithuanian, дно [dno] (floor, bed, bottom) in Russian, and words for black in Celtic languages

The names Donald and Dunaldur (used in Faroese) come from the Proto-Celtic name *Dubnowalos [source].

Spinning, Twisting & Turning

2nd October 2024 By Simon

Words for spin, twist, turn and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	snīmus = spinning, weaving sniyeti = to turn, twist
Old Irish (Goídelc)	sníïd = to twist sním = spinning, twisting, vexation grief, anxiety
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	sníïd, sníit = to twists, bend, tie, contend, struggle, grieve, trouble, vex sním, snim = twisting, bending, shaping, trouble, care, grief, anxiety snímaid = to spin, twist
Irish (Gaeilge)	sníomh [ʃnʲiːvˠ/ʃnʲiːw] = spinning, twisting, twinning, struggle, strain, wrench, cre, anxiety; to spin, twist, strain, wrench, strive, struggle sníomhach = spinning, turning, twisting, anxious, concerned sníomhachán = (act of) spinning sníomhadán = spinneret sníomhaí = spinner sníomhaire = spindle
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	snìomh [ʃn̪ʲĩə̃v] = spinning, winding, wreathing, twisting, twining, twist, curl, sprain, wrench snìomhach [ʃn̪ʲiəvəx] = twisting, winding, spiral, tortuous, twisted snìomhachan [ʃn̪ʲəvəxan] = spinner (implement) snìomhadh [ʃn̪ʲĩə̃vəɣ] = spinning, winding, wreathing, twising snìomhaire [ʃn̪ʲiəvərʲə] = borer, auger, spinner snìomhte [ʃn̪ʲĩə̃vdʲə] = spin, entwined, twisted
Manx (Gaelg)	snee = crossness, offence, vexation sneeu = spin, spinning queeyl sneeuee = spinning wheel sneeuder = spinner
Proto-Brythonic	*nɨðid = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	nydd = spin, twist, perverseness, obstinacy, agitation, difficulty nydu [ˈnəðɨ/ˈnəði] = to spin (wool), twist, wind
Welsh (Cymraeg)	nydd [nɨːð/niːð] = spin, twist, perverseness, obstinacy, agitation, difficulty, honeysuckle, spun nyddu [ˈnəðɨ/ˈnəði] = to spin (wool), twist, wind nydd(i)wr = spinner, spinning-machine, nightjar, grasshopper warbler nyddlin = a spiral
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	nedhe, nedhé = to spin, turn, twist
Cornish (Kernewek)	nedha = to twist
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	nezaff = to spin, trick, fool, purr
Breton (Brezhoneg)	nez = twist, twisting nezadenn = spun thing nezadur = wiring nezañ [ˈneː(z)ã] = to spin, trick, fool, purr nezer = spinner nezerezh = spinning

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *(s)neh₁- (to spin, sew). Words from the same roots include needle, snood in English, naald (needle, pin) in Dutch, nähen (to sew) in German, snáth (thread, yarn, web) in Irish, and possibly snop (sheaf) in Czech [source].

See also the Pins & Needles post for some Celtic words related to needles, pins and thread.

Proto-Celtic	*kassos = curly, twisted, woven
Gaulish	kass- = twist kassis = curly (hair) *kassanos = oak (tree/wood)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cas = curly (haired) casaid = to twist, turn
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cas, cass = curly (hair) casaid, casaidh = to twist, bend
Irish (Gaeilge)	cas [kɑsˠ] = twisted, winding, curly, complicated, intricate, twisty, devious; to twist, turn, wind casadh [ˈkɑsˠə/ˈkasˠu(ː)] = to twist, turn, wind, spin, reproach
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cas [kas] = twist, bend, wind (up), gnash, oppose, turn against casadh [kasəɣ] = (act of) opposing, turning against, twisting, bending, gnashing casta [kasdə] = twisted, twined, curled, complex
Manx (Gaelg)	cassit = contorted, distorted, twirled, twisted cassee = coiling, twisting, winding cassey = to curl, distort, screw, spin, whirl cast = curly, curved, intricate, spun, warped, wrapped

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *kes- (to scrape, comb) [source]. Words from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Gaulish kassanos (oak) and Latin casnus, include casse (oak) in Occitan, cassanella (gall) in Catalan and chêne (oak) in French [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include hair in English, коса (kosa – hair) in Bulgarian, and kasa (braid) in Latvian [source].

See the Weaving Words post for some weaving-related Celtic words.

Proto-Brythonic	*tro = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	tro = rotation, revolution, turn(ing), stir(ing), twist, warp troat, troad, troead = rotation, revolution, orbit, turn(ing) troy, try, troi = to turn, spin
Welsh (Cymraeg)	tro [troː] = rotation, revolution, turn(ing), stir(ing), twist, warp, coil, ringlet tro(e)ad = rotation, revolution, orbit, turn(ing), stir(ing), twist, convolution, hinge tro(a)f, troi = to turn, spin, whirl, rotate, roll
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	tro = turn, circuit, occasion, manner, sort troillia = to turn, whirl
Cornish (Kernewek)	tro = cycle, occasion, round, turn troyll = spiral, swirl, ceilidh troyllya = to spin, swirl troyllyek = spiral troyllyer plasennow = record player
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	tro = movement, turn tro(u)im = to turn, spin
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	tro = round, surround, surroundings treiff = to turn, move
Breton (Brezhoneg)	tro [troː] = round, surround, surroundings tro-dro [troˈdroː] = around, towards treiñ = to spin

Etymology: uncertain. Possibly related to Latin torqueo (I turn) or Ancient Greek τρόπος (trópos – a turn) [source].

Voices

24th September 20241st October 2024 By Simon

Words for voice, word, sound and related things in Celtic languages.

Bangor Community Choir singing at Bodnant Garden / Côr Cymunedol Bangor yn canu yng Ngardd Bodnant

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*gutus = voice
Gaulish	gutus = voice (?) GVTVATER / gutuater** = priest / druid
Old Irish (Goídelc)	guth [ɡʊθ] = voice, word, sound
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	guth, gotha, gotho = voice, sound, word, vowel, aspersion, blame, censure, slander
Irish (Gaeilge)	guth [ɡɯh/ɡʊ(h)] = voice, human voice, blame, reproach, censure guta = vowel guthach = vocal, vocalic guthaigh = to voice, vocalize, sing, censure, reproach guthaíl = voicing, calling guthaíocht = vocalization, voice, vote gutháire = yell(ing), shout(ing) guthán = telephone
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	guth [guh] = voice, tone of voice, mention, word guth-cheòl = intonation guthach [guhəx] = vocal, vocalic, vocied guathachadh [guhəxəɣ] = (act of) calling, vocalizing, vocalization, voicing (in linguistics) guthaich [guhɪç] = call, vocalize, voice guthlag [guhl̪ˠag] = larynx guthlagail [guhl̪ˠagal] = laryngeal
Manx (Gaelg)	goo = voice, word, utterance, reputation, fame gooagh = loquacious, sonant, vocal, vocalic, voiced, wordy goolag = larynx

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰuH-tu-s (to call on, invoke), from *ǵʰewH- (to call on, invoke) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include zavêt (to cast a spell) in Latvian, զավեշտ (zavešt – joke, farce) in Armenia, звать (zvatʹ – to call, invite) in Russian, and зова (zova – to call, summon, name) in Bulgarian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	glór [ɡloːr] = voice, sound glórach = noisy
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	glór, glóir, glár = voice, sound, noise glórach = loud-voiced, noisy, vociferous glórda = loud, resonant glúarda = noisy, vociferous
Irish (Gaeilge)	glór [ɡl̪ˠoːɾˠ/ɡl̪ˠɔːɾˠ] = voice, human voice, speech, utterance, sound, noise glórach = loud-voiced, sonorous, noisy, vociferous, voiced (consonant, etc) glórachán = loud-voiced, vociferous person glóraí = loudness, sonorousness glóraigh = to voice, vocalize glóraíl = sound of voices, vociferation, noisiness glórmhach = tumult of voice, commotion, clamour
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	glòr [gl̪ˠɔːrʲ] = speech, utterance
Manx (Gaelg)	glare [ɡlɛːr] = voice, utterance, speech, language glaraghey = voice glareydagh = linguistic, linguist

Etymology: possibly from Latin glōria (glory, renown, fame, honour) [source], from Proto-Indo-European *ǵneh₃- (to know, recognize). Words from the same roots include canny, cunning, glory and know in English; gloria (glory, praise) in Italian; and glorie (glory, great beauty, renown, splendour) in Dutch [source].

Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	lew, llef = shout, cry, wail, roar, yell, sound, voice, speech, utterance llevein, lleuein, llefain = to cry (out), exclaim, shout, lament, call, entreat, weep, shout leuan = (loud) shout, cry, scream leueir, lawaraw, llafaro = to speak, utter, say, tell
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llef [ɬɛv] = shout, cry, wail, roar, yell, sound, voice, speech, utterance llefaf, llefain = to cry (out), exclaim, shout, lament, call, entreat, weep, shout llefair = enunciation, spoken word, speech, talkative adlef [ˈadlɛv] = echo, reverberation
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	lef, lêf = voice, sound, cry lefa = to cry aloud, shout
Cornish (Kernewek)	lev = voice dre lev = vocal levbost = voicemail
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	lem = complaint, groan, wail
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	leff = complaint, groan, wail leuaff = to cry, moan
Breton (Brezhoneg)	leñv, leñ = groan, complaint, plaintive cry, moaning; voice, cry (archaic) leñvañ [ˈlẽː.vã] = to cry, scream, groan, bleat leñver = to cry leñverez = crying

Etymology: from Proto-Brythonic *laβar (eloquent), from Proto-Celtic *ɸlabros (talkative) [source]. For more related words, see the Celtiadur post Talkative

Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	lleis = voice lleisiaf, lleisiaw, lleisio = to use the voice, vocalize, sing
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llais [ɬai̯s/ɬai̯ʃ] = voice, vocal capacity, talk, report, tidings, rumour, vote lleisgar = vociferous, loud-mouthed, resonant lleisiad = voicing, sounding, tone, intonation lleisio [ˈɬei̯ʃɔ] = to use the voice, vocalize, sing lleisiol [ˈɬei̯ʃɔl] = vocal, spoken, oral, voiced lleisydd [ˈɬei̯sɨ̞ð/ˈɬei̯sɪð] = vocalist, loud hailer, loudspeaker

Etymology: maybe from Welsh llafar (loud, vociferous, sonorous, speech, voice, sound) [source], from Proto-Brythonic *laβar (eloquent), from Proto-Celtic *ɸlabros (talkative), possibly from Proto-Indo-European *pl̥b-ró-s, from *pleb- (to babble) [source]. See also the Celtiadur post Talkative

Old Breton (Brethonoc)	*voes = voice
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	moez = voice
Breton (Brezhoneg)	mouezh = voice, vote mouezhian = to express oneself, vote mouezhierezh = election, electorate

Etymology: from Old French voiz (voice), from Latin vōcem (), from vōx (voice, accent, speech, word), from Proto-Italic *wōks, from Proto-Indo-European *wṓkʷs (speech, voice), from wekʷ- (to speak, sound out) [source]. Words from the same roots include vocal, voice and vowel in English, and voix (voice, vote) in French [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	son = sound, word
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	son, soun, són = sound, word, name
Irish (Gaeilge)	son = sound; word, name (literary) sonach = sonic sonarach = ringing sound, clangour sonda = sonant, sonorous sondáil = to sound sondas = sonorousness, sonority
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sòn† = sound, voice, word
Manx (Gaelg)	sonn = sound sonnagh = sonic
Proto-Brythonic	*son = sound (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	son, sson = report, rumour, mention, word, message, talk, fame, sound, noise, clamour sonfawr, sonuaỽr, sonuawr = sonorous, noisy, audible, loquacious sonyo, sonio = to mention, rumour, proclaim, talk, speak, say, utter
Welsh (Cymraeg)	sôn [soːn] = report, rumour, mention, word, message, talk, fame, sound, noise, clamour sonfawr = sonorous, noisy, audible, loquacious soniaf, sôn, sonio = to mention, rumour, proclaim, talk, speak, say, utter soniarus = sonorous, resounat, vibrant sŵn [sʊːn] = sound, noise, clmour, din, report, rumour, talk
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	son, sôn = sound, noise, report, speech
Cornish (Kernewek)	son = noise, sound sonek = sonic sonlergh = soundtrack sononieth = acoustics sononiethel = acoutic sonskrif = recording sonskrifa = to record
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	soun, son = sound sounaff = to ring, resound
Breton (Brezhoneg)	son [sɔ̃ːn] = sound, song seniñ [ˈsẽːnĩ] = to ring, resound, honk, sing, rustle (water), play (an instrument) soner = to ring, say, pronounce sonerez [sɔ̃.ˈneː.res] = doorbell, bell, horn sonerezh = music, sound system

Etymology: from Latin sonus (sound, noise, pitch, speech, tone, voice), from Proto-Indo-European *swónh₂os, from *swenh₂- (to sound) [source]. Words from the same roots include resound, sonnet, sonic, sound and swan in English, sonner (to sound, ring) in French, sonar (to sound, ring, play) in Spanish, honni (to allege, claim, assert) in Welsh, and seinn (to sing, play an instrument) in Irish and Scottish Gaelic [source].

The Welsh word sŵn was borrowed from Middle English soun (sound), while sôn comes from Latin via Middle Welsh and Proto-Brythonic. They both ultimately come from the same PIE roots.

Furrowed Trenches

31st August 202431st August 2024 By Simon

Words for furrow, trench and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	ɸrikā = furrow enterɸrikyā = furrow
Gaulish	rikā/ricā = furrow
Old Irish (Goídelc)	rech = furrow etrech = furrow
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	etarche, etrige, eitre = furrow, groove, channel
Irish (Gaeilge)	eitre [ˈɛtʲəɾʲə] = furrow, groove, ridge eitreach = furrowed, grooved, rifled eitrigh = furrow, groove
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	eitre = trench, furrow
Manx (Gaelg)	eerey = furrow length, plough length
Proto-Brythonic	*rrɨx = furrow
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	rych, rich, rrych = trench, ditch, furrow, groove
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhych [r̥ɨːχ/r̥iːχ] = trench, ditch, furrow, groove, streak, wrinkle, cleft, cleavage rhychiad = crease, wrinkle, furrowing, trenching, chamfering rhych(i)og = furrowed, wrinkled, shrivelled rhychu = to cut a trench, cut into rows, plough, groove, corrugate, make or become wrinkled
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	rec = furrow
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	rec = furrow
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reg = line, furrow

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *pr̥keh₂ (furrow), from *perḱ- (to open, rip up, dig) [source].

Words from the same Proto-Celtic roots, via Gaulish *rikā (furrow) and Latin riga (line, stripe), include rega (furrow, ladder / run [in a stocking]) in Catalan, raie (stripe, parting, line) in French, porca (ridge between furrows, balk line) in Italian, alporquia (layering – developing a new plant from the branch of a tree) in Portuguese, porcoi (haystack, hay bale, heap, pile, bunch) in Romanian, and erreka (river, stream, ravine) in Basque [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include furrow, farrow and pig in English, Furche (furrow) in German, fåra (furrow, groove) in Swedish, porsas (piglet, pork) in Finnish, and arc [aɾˠk] (piglet) in Irish [source].

Other words for Ditches and Trenches and Grave Ditches in Celtic languages.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Yoked Bonds

27th August 2024 By Simon

Words for yoke, bond and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	yugom = yoke komyungis = (?)
Gaulish	yugom = yoke (?) Weryugos = personal name
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cuing = yoke
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cuing, coing = yoke, burden, duty, sway, discipline, behaviour
Irish (Gaeilge)	cuing [kiːɲɟ/kɪɲ] = yoke, bond, obligation, tie, beam, narrow neck of land (as between two lakes) cuingealach = jugular cuingigh = to yoke, enjoin cuingir = yoke, pair, couple, group, herd cuingleánach = yoked cuingrigh = yoke, couple
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cuing [kɯ̃ĩŋʲgʲ] = yoke, asthma, bond, obligation cuinge [kɯ̃ĩŋʲgʲə] = narrow place, passage, pass, difficulty, limitation cuingeach [kɯ̃ĩŋʲgʲəx] = asthmatic cuingeachadh [kɯ̃ĩŋʲgʲəxəɣ] = (act of) yoking, abridgement, constraining, restricting, constraint cuingeachail [kɯiŋʲgʲəxal] = limiting, restrictive cuingealach [kɯ̃ĩŋʲgʲəl̪ˠəx] = restricted, shackled, constricted
Manx (Gaelg)	quing = yoke, brace, team of oxen, (balance) beam quingaghey = to subjugate, yoke quingey = to yoke quingit = yoked
Proto-Brythonic	*jọw = yoke
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	iou = yoke
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	iou, yeu, iau, jav = yoke
Welsh (Cymraeg)	iau [jaɨ̯/jai̯] = yoke, pair of oxen, sway, dominion, authority, discipline, oppression
Old Cornish	ieu = yoke
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	yeu = yoke
Cornish (Kernewek)	yew = yoke war yew = onward
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	yeu, yau = yoke
Breton (Brezhoneg)	yev [jew] = yoke, servitude yevad = yoke, hitch, team, coupling yevan, yevañ = to yoke, subjugate, enslave

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *yugóm (yoke) or *yung, from *yewg- (to join, yoke, tie together) [source]. Words from the same roots include adjunct, conjugate, join, jugular, junction, yoga and yoke in English, joindre (to join up, reach, contact) in French, and junto (together, joined, next to) in Spanish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*wedos = yoke, harness
Old Irish (Goídelc)	fedan = band, carrying, company, drawing feidid [ˈɸʲeðʲiðʲ] = to bring, lead
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	fedan, feadhan, fedhain = (act of) carrying, conveying, carriage, harness, band, company, part, some feidid, fedid = to bring, lead, refer, apply
Irish (Gaeilge)	feadhain = band, troop, company
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	feadhain = team of horses
Manx (Gaelg)	fwirran = staff, team
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gued, guet, gved, gwedd = yoke, harness guedu, gwedha = to be coupled with a yoke, be yoked gwedeu, guedeu = traces, draught-harness gwedhau = to submit, pay homage
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gwedd [ɡweːð] = yoke, harness, team (of horses, oxen, etc), bondage, captivity, submission, humility, homage, offspring, progeny, children gweddaf, gweddu = to be coupled with a yoke, be yoked, submit, humble oneself gweddau = traces, draught-harness

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *wedʰ- (to bind, secure, pledge, guarantee, lead) [source]. Words from the same roots include gage, wage, wager and wed in English, Wette (bet) in German, and gage (pledge, guarantee, deposit) in French [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	mám [maːm] = yoke
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	mám = yoke
Irish (Gaeilge)	mám = yoke

Etymology: ? [source].

Celtiadur

Exploring connections between Celtic languages

Category: Gaulish

Pursuing Followers

Larches

Dutiful Laws

Swords & Spikes

Gritty Gravel

Deeply Profound

Spinning, Twisting & Turning

Voices

Furrowed Trenches

Yoked Bonds