My, Myself & I

25th August 202625th August 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for me, myself, I and related pronouns in Celtic languages.

My, Myself & I

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	mī = I, me me = me *mene = my
Gaulish	mi = I me = me mon = my moi = to me
Old Irish (Goídelc)	mé [ˈmʲeː] = I, me messe = I, me (emphatic) mo = my
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	mé = I, me mes(s)e, meisse, mis(s)e = I, me (emphatic) mo, mu = my
Irish (Gaeilge)	mé [mʲeː / mʲə] = I, me mise[ˈmʲiʃə] = I, me (emphatic) mé féin = myself mo, m’ = my
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	mi [mi] = I mise [ˈmiʃə] = I (emphatic) mi fhìn = myself mo [mə] = my, mine
Manx (Gaelg)	mee [miː] = I, me mish [miʃ] = I, me, myself (emphatic) mee hene = myself my = my
Proto-Brythonic	*mi = I, me
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	mi = I, me vi = my
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	mi, my, vi, i = I, me minnev, minheu, minne, vinneu, finne, ynnev, inheu, ynneu, inneu = I (me) too, I (me) too, even I (me) myhun [və] = myself vy, my, vym, veu = my
Welsh (Cymraeg)	mi, fi, i [mi, viː, iː] = I, me minnau, finnau, innau [ˈmɪna(i̯) / ˈvɪna(i̯), ina(i̯)] = I, me (emphatic), I (me) also, I (me) too, even I (me), I (me) on the other hand, I (me) for my part fy hun(an), my hun(an) [və hɨːn(an) / mə hiːn(an)] = myself fy (… fi) [və viː] = my
Old Cornish	mi = I, me
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	mi, my, me, vy = I, me ma, mv = my, mine ow honan, ow honyn = myself
Cornish (Kernewek)	my, me, vy = I, me evy = I, me (emphatic) ma = my ow honan, ow honen = myself
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	ti, te = I, me
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	me = I, me ma = my mahunan, ma hunan = myself
Breton (Brezhoneg)	me [meː] = I, me ma, va, ‘m = my ma-unan, va-unan = myself

Etymology: from PIE *me (me), the accusative form of éǵh₂ (I) [source]. Many words for I, me, my and myself in other Indo-European languages come from the same roots, as does the English word ego [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

You Yourself

18th August 202618th August 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for you and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	tū = you (singular), thou towe = your, thy
Gaulish	tu = you (singular), thou
Old Irish (Goídelc)	tú [t̪uː] = you (singular) tussu, túsu [ˈt̪u.su] = you (singular, emphatic) do = your (singular)
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	tú, tu = you (singular) túsu, túsu, tussu, tússu = you (singular, emphatic) do = your (singular)
Irish (Gaeilge)	tú [t̪ˠuː] = you (singular) tú fhéin [t̪ˠuː heːnʲ] = yourself tusa [ˈt̪ˠɞsˠə / ˈt̪ˠɨsˠə] = you (singular, emphatic) do = your (singular)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	thu [u] = you (singular) thu fhèin [u heːn] = yourself thusa [ˈusə] = you (singular, emphatic) do [də] = your (singular), thy
Manx (Gaelg)	oo [u(ː)] = you (singular) oo-hene [u heːn] = yourself uss [ˈt̪u.su] = you (singular, emphatic) dty = your (singular)
Proto-Brythonic	*ti = you (singular)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	ti = you (singular)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ti, ty = you (singular), thou, thee titheu, thithau = you too, you also, even you dy (… di) = your (singular), thy, thine
Welsh (Cymraeg)	ti [tiː] = you (singular) chdi [χdiː] = you (singular – northern) tithau [ˈtɪθaɨ̯] = you too, you also, even you chdithau [ˈχdiːθaɨ̯] = you too, etc (northern) dy (… di) [də] = your (singular) dy hun(an) [də ˈhɨ̞nan / də ˈhiːnan] = yourself
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	ti, te, ty = thou, thee da, dha, dhe = your (singular)
Cornish (Kernewek)	ty, che, chy = you (singular) dha, ‘th = your (singular) dha honan = yourself
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	ti, te = you (singular)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	te = you (singular)
Breton (Brezhoneg)	te [teː] = you (singular) te ivez [teː] = you (singular, emphatic) teal [ˈteː.al] = to address someone informally (with te) da = your (singular) da-unan = yourself

Etymology: from PIE *túh₂ (you, thou) [source] and *téwe (your) [source]. Many words for you (singular) in other Indo-European languages come from the same roots [source].

Proto-Celtic	swīs = you (plural) swīswīs = you (plural, emphatic)
Gaulish	suis = you (plural)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	sib, sí(i) [ˈsʲiβʲ / ˈsʲiː] = you (plural), ye sibsi, sissi [ˈsʲiβʲ / ˈsʲi.sʲi] = you (plural, emphatic) for = your (plural)
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	sib = you (plural) sis(s)i = you (plural, emphatic) for, far = your (plural)
Irish (Gaeilge)	sibh [ʃɪvʲ] = you (plural) sibh fhéin [ʃɪvʲ heːnʲ] = yourselves sibhse [ˈʃivʲʃə] = you (plural, emphatic) bhur = your (plural)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sibh [ʃɪv] = you (plural) sibh fhèin [ʃɪv heːnʲ] = yourselves sibhsa [ʃiːvʃə] = you (plural, emphatic) ur n- [ər n] = your (plural)
Manx (Gaelg)	shiu [ʃuː] = you (plural) shiu-hene [ʃuːhen] = yourselves shiush [ˈʃuːʃ] = you (plural, emphatic) nyn = your (plural)
Proto-Brythonic	hwi = you (plural) hwihwi = you (plural, emphatic)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	hui = you (plural)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	chwi, chi = you, ye (plural) chw(i)chwi = you, ye (plural, emphatic), you yourselves y ch, ych, ‘ch = your (plural)
Welsh (Cymraeg)	chwi, chi [χ(w)ɪ] = you (plural) chi hun(ain) [χɪ ˈhɨ̞n(ai̯n) / ˈhiːn(ai̯n)] = yourselves chithau [ˈχɪθaɨ̯ / ˈχɪθai̯] = you also, and you too chwychwi, chwchwim chychwi = you (plural, emphatic), you yourselves eich (… chi) [ei̯χ] = your (plural)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	hwi, hwî, why = ye, you (plural) agas, ages, agis, agos, agys = your (plural) ages honan = yourselves
Cornish (Kernewek)	hwi, hwei = you (plural) hwyhwi = you (plural, emphatic) agas, ‘gas, ‘s [aɡəs / aɡəz] = your (plural) agas honan = yourselves
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	hui = you (plural)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	huy = you (plural) hoz, ho = your (plural)
Breton (Brezhoneg)	c’hwi, hwi [ˈxwiː] = you (plural) c’hwi ivez = you (plural, emphatic) c’hwial [ˈxwiːal] = to address someone formally (with c’hwi) ho, hoc’h = your (plural) hoc’h-unan = yourselves

Etymology: from PIE *wos, the oblique form of *yúHs (you (plural)) [source]. Many words for you (plural) in other Indo-European languages come from the same roots [source].

Shining Bright

7th August 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for clear, bright, shining and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*gleiwos = shining, clear, sparkling
Gaulish	*gleuos = bright, shiny
Old Irish (Goídelc)	glé [ˈɡʲlʲeː] = bright, clear, plain glésse = brightness
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	glé, gle = clear, plain, evident gléid = to make clear, purify, clear up gleóir = clear, luminous, bright gléthech = bright, pure
Irish (Gaeilge)	glé [ɟlʲeː] = clear, bright, vivid, limpid, pure, lucid, luminous, intense, sharp gléine = brilliance, clarity, crispness, lucidity, luminosity, sharpness, vibrancy
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	glè† [gleː] = real, pure, clean, good, open, plain
Proto-Brythonic	*gluɨw = bright, shining, sparkling
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	gloiu = bright, shining, sparkling
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gloev, gloyw, gloew = bright, shining, sparkling gloewi, gloywi = to brighten, polish, clarify gloywder, gloewder = brightness, clearness, splendour, radience gloewed = clearness, brightness, radiance, glory, praise gloewr = polisher, burnisher
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gloyw [ˈɡlɔɨ̯.u / ˈɡlɔi̯.u] = bright, shining, sparkling, polished, burnished, clear, limpid, lucid, transparent, definite gloywder = brightness, clearness, splendour, radience gloywedd = clearness, brightness, radiance, glory, praise gloywi = to brighten, polish, clarify gloywwr = polisher, burnisher Caerloyw = Gloucester
Cornish (Kernewek)	gluw = shining
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	gloeu = clear
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	gloeu = clear
Breton (Brezhoneg)	gloev = clear, limpid, bloated, rare gloevenn = to become sparse, to thin out

Etymology: from PIE *ǵʰley- (to shine) [source].

Glēvum, the Latin name for Gloucester, also comes from the same Proto-Celtic roots [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include glimma (to glimmer, gleam, shine) in Swedish, glitzern (to glitter, sparkle) in German, glær (clear, transparent) in Icelandic, and glimmer, gleam, glint, glisten, glitter and gloom in English [source].

For more words for bright, etc, see the Bright Lights post.

Confluent Ravines

31st July 202631st July 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for ravine and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	komberos. komboros = place where river water brews up, confluence (place where rivers meet), dam, barrage
Gaulish	*comberos = river dam
Old Irish (Goídelc)	commar = confluence, meeting place
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	commar, commur, commor = confluence (of rivers), assembly, meeting place
Irish (Gaeilge)	cumar = ravine (usually with a stream), steep-sided inlet (of the sea), channel, rut cumarach = channelled, rutted
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	comar [komər] = confluence, concourse comarach [komərəx] = pertaining to or abounding in confluences; confluent
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	cmer = confluence, meeting of waters, meeting place or clash of armies
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cimer, kimer = confluence, meeting of waters, meeting place or clash of armies
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cymer [ˈkəmɛr] = confluence (of rivers or streams), meeting of waters, meeting place or clash of armies
Cornish (Kernewek)	kemper = confluence, junction of streams
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kember [ˈkɛm.bɛr] = confluence kemberiñ [kɛm.ˈbeː.rĩ] = to converge

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *kom- (with, together) and *berwos- (stew), from PIE *ḱóm (beside, near, by with) and *bʰrewh₁ (to boil, brew).

Words from the same Proto-Celtic roots, via Gaulish *comberos and Latin combrus (river dam, may include encombrer (to block off, clutter, congest, encumber, burden) in French, escombrar (to clear out, clean out) in Spanish, and cumbersome, encumber and incumbrance in English [source].

Words from the same PIE roots possibly include berwi (to boil) and brwd (eager, keen) in Welsh, brænde (to burn, distill) in Danish, brouwen (to brew) in Dutch, brouiller (to blur, confuse) in French, bruth (heat, rash) in Irish, and bread, brew, broth, burn, fervor in English [source].

For more words for confluence and related things see the Rivers Mouths post.

Bushy Hedges

17th July 202617th July 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for hedge, bush and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	kʷerstā, kʷerkus, *kʷerxt- = hedge, bush
Gaulish	perth [pɛrθ] = bush, hedge
Old Irish (Goídelc)	ceirt = apple tree, Ogham letter ᚊ (q) [kw]
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ceirt, cert = apple tree, Ogham letter ᚊ (q) [kw]
Irish (Gaeilge)	ceirt [cɛɾˠtʲ] = apple tree, Ogham letter ᚊ (q) [kw]
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ceirt [kʲer̪ʃdʲ] = Ogham letter ᚊ (q) [kw], crab / wild apple (archaic)
Proto-Brythonic	*perθ [pɛrθ] = bush, thicket
Pictish	*ᚚᚓᚏᚈ (pert) = wood, grove
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	perth = hedge, (thorn) bush, brake, thicket, copse
Welsh (Cymraeg)	perth [pɛrθ] = hedge, (thorn) bush, brake, thicket, copse, coppice, bush, countryside, jungle
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	perth = a bush
Cornish (Kernewek)	perth = thicket

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *pérkus (oak) [source].

Perth, the city in Scotland, gets it’s name from the Pictish word *ᚚᚓᚏᚈ (pert). The Scottish Gaelic version of the name: Peairt comes from the same roots, as does the city of Perth in Australia [source].

Other words from the same roots include fjör (vitality, sprightliness, vigour, energy, fun, merriment, life) in Icelandic, fur (pinewood) in Swedish, quercia (oak) in Italian, pērkons (thunder) in Latvian, and fir and cork in English, and possibly the words below [source].

Proto-Celtic	*kʷerkʷtā = (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	ceirt = rag
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ceirt, cert = rag, piece of cloth ceirtín = tatters certán = an item of clothing (?)
Irish (Gaeilge)	ceirt [cɛɾˠtʲ] = piece of clothing, rag, clout ceirtachán = ragged person
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ceirt† [kʲer̪ʃdʲ] = rag ceirteach† [kʲer̪ʃdʲəx] = rag, ragged, pertaining to or abounding in rags ceirteachd† = tawdriness, raggedness ceirteag† = ragged girl

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *perkʷ-téh₂, from *perkʷ- (oak) [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	garrda = garden, yard
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	garrda, garrga = a plot, yard, enclosure, court, garden garrdadóir = gardener
Irish (Gaeilge)	garraí [ˈɡɑɾˠiː] = garden, yard, enclosure, ring, halo garrdaíodóir = gardener garraíodóireacht = gardening
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	gàrradh [gaːr̪ˠəɣ] = dyke, wall, garden, enclosure
Manx (Gaelg)	garey = garden, allotment, arbour gareyder = gardener, horticulturalist garagh, gareydys = gardening
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gard, gart, gardd = garden, enclosure gard(d)wr = gardener
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gardd = garden, enclosure garddio = to garden, cultivate a garden garddlan = garden, nursery garddol = garden, horticultural garddoriaeth = horticulture garddwr = gardener garddwriaeth = gardening, horticulture
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	garth = a garden
Cornish (Kernewek)	garth = courtyard, enclosure, yard
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	garz = bush, hedge
Breton (Brezhoneg)	garzh [ɡars] = hedge, wooded embankment

Etymology: from Old Norse garðr (enclosed space, yard), from Proto-Germanic *gardaz (court, yard, enclosure), from PIE *gʰórdʰos (hedge, fence), from *gʰerdʰ- (to enclose, encircle, enclosure, fence, belt). Words from the same roots include yard, garth, girth, girdle, garden and horticulture in English, jardin (garden) in French, gård (farm, estate, land, court, yard) in Danish, gård (estate, farmstead, ranch, yard) in Swedish [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Dictionnaires bilingues de Francis Favereau / Edition Skol Vreizh, TermOfis

A Stack of Heaps

7th May 20267th May 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for heap, pile, stack and related words, in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*dasti- = heap, pile
Gaulish	Condate = Condé (a place in France)
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	daiss, daise, dassaib, daisib = heap, pile, rick, stack (esp. of corn) tegdais, tegdas, techdais = house, dwelling, mansion, room, apartment, tabernacle, church
Irish (Gaeilge)	dais = heap, stack (literary) teaghais, teaghdhais house, dwelling, tabernacle, church, room, apartment
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dais [daʃ] = heap, pile, (bread loaf-shaped) rick, stack dais-fheòir = haystack, hayrick dais-eòrna = stack/rick of barley dasieadh [daʃəɣ] = (act of) heaping, piling up, making a rick or stack taigheadas [tɤjədəs] = residence, housing, housekeeping
Manx (Gaelg)	dash = small pile, heap
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	das, dais = rick, stack, mow, heap, pile das(s)wrn = heap, pile, rick
Welsh (Cymraeg)	das = rick, stack, mow, heap, pile das (o) wair = hayrick, haystack das (o) fawn = peat stack, turf pile dasag, dasu = to stack, rick, pile, heap up dasiad = a ricking daswl = pile, stack daswr = one who stacks, ricks, piles up or heaps up daswrn = heap, pile, rick
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	tasurn = a pile of wood, a wood-rick
Cornish (Kernewek)	das = stack, rick das wora = haystack, hayrick dasa = to stack
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	desi = pile (?)
Breton (Brezhoneg)	tes = stacking, pile tesañ = to pile up, stacking tesenn = stack, pile

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *dʰeh₁- (to do, put, place) [source]. Words from the same PIE root possibly include дело (delo – affair, matter) in Russian, dáil (tryst, betrothal, legislature) in Irish, Ort (place, location) in German, odd, family and theme in English, and hacer (to do, make) in Spanish [source].

Proto-Celtic	karnos, karnom = heap of stones, cairn, tomb, horn, antler
Gaulish	karnon = horn karnuātus = horned
Old Irish (Goídelc)	carn = heap, pile
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	carn, carnd = heap, mound, hillock carna(ig)id, carnait, carnaigit = to heap up, pile up
Irish (Gaeilge)	carn [kɑːɾˠn̪ˠ / kaːɾˠn̪ˠ] = heap, pile, cairn, great amount carnach = full of cairns, made up in heaps, cumulative carnadh = accumulation carnán [ˈkɑːɾˠn̪ˠɑːn̪ˠ] = (small) heap, mound
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	càrn [kaːrˠn̪ˠ] = cairn, heap of stones, pile (up), stack of corn càrnach [kaːrˠn̪ˠəx] = rocky, stony càrnadh [kaːrˠn̪ˠəɣ] = (act of) heaping, piling (up), hoarding, heap, pile (up), accumulating, accumulation
Manx (Gaelg)	carn = heap, cairn, stack of stone carnagh = cumulative carnane = heap, mound, dump, cairn, rampart carnaneagh = heaped, piled up, cumulus, cumuliform
Proto-Brythonic	*karn = a pile of stones, a cairn
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	carn, karn = cairn, barrow, tumulus, mound, rock, heap, pile carned(d), karned = cairn, tumulus, mound, heap, pile, ruin
Welsh (Cymraeg)	carn [karn] = cairn, barrow, tumulus, mound, rock, heap, pile; drinking horn, handle carnedd [ˈkarnɛð] = cairn, tumulus, mound, heap, pile, ruin carneddaf, carneddu = to heap, pile, amass, accumulate carneddog, carneddol = abounding with heaps of stones, rocky carnen = a small cairn or tumulus
Old Cornish	carn =
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	carn = a rock, a rocky place, a high rock, a shelf in the sea, a heap of stones, the hilt, handle of an instrument
Cornish (Kernewek)	karn = rock-pile, tor, carn, heap of rock karnedh = cairn
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	carn = cairn, tumulus, horn (?)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	carn = cairn, tumulus, horn
Breton (Brezhoneg)	karn = cairn, tumulus, horn

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *ḱerh₂- (head, top, horn) [source]. Words from the same roots include cairn in English and Scots, procrastinate, cranium and giraffe in English, corne (horn) in French and krowa (cow) in Polish [source].

Whey

18th September 202518th September 2025 By Simon

Words for whey and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*mezgos = whey
Gaulish	*mesgos = whey (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	medc, medg [ˈmʲeðɡ] = whey
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	medc, medg, midc = whey, serum
Irish (Gaeilge)	meadhg [ˈmʲəiɡ / ˈmʲaiɡ / ˈmʲeːɡ] = whey, serum, blood-serum – also written meidhg meadhgúil = consisting of whey, watery meadhguisce = whey-water
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	meadhg [mjɤːg] = whey meang [mɛŋg] = whey meòg [mjɔːg] = whey meògach = of whey, like whey, serous meug [miag] = whey mìg [miːgʲ] = whey miong [mjɤ̃ŋg] = whey miùg [mjuːg] = whey
Manx (Gaelg)	meaig = whey meaighagh = whey-faced
Proto-Brythonic	*meið = whey
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	medd, maidd, meid = whey meiddlyn = whey, buttermilk, posset
Welsh (Cymraeg)	maidd [mai̯ð] = whey, serum, curds and whey, blood serum meidda = to beg for whey meiddaidd, meiddl(l)yd = whey-like, wheyey, serous meiddioni = to curdle meiddlyn = whey, buttermilk, posset
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	meith = whey
Cornish (Kernewek)	meydh = whey
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	meid = whey

Note: in Breton, whey is laezh-bihan (‘small milk’) – a calque of French petit-lait (whey), laezh-glas (‘blue/green milk’), gwipad or gwitod [source] and [source].

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *mosgʰos (marrow, brain). The Old French word mesgue (whey) comes from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Gaulish *mesgos [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include smadzenes (brain) in Latvian, भेजा (bhejā – brain, mind) in Hindi, মজ্জা (mojja – marrow) in Bengali, مغز (maġz – brain, marrow) in Persian, marrow in English, merg (marrow) in Dutch, Mark (marrow, pith) in German, and possibly mysa (whey) in Icelandic [source].

Just in case you’re wondering, whey [weɪ] is the liquid remaining after milk has been curdled and strained in the process of making cheese. It comes from Middle English whey(e) (whey), from Old English hwǣġ (whey), from Proto-West Germanic *hwaij (whey), perhaps from Proto-Indo-European *kʷey- (to pile up, build) [source]. It can be used to be used to make products like whey cheeses, such as ricotta, whey butter, and whey protein, which is sold as a dietary supplement popular with athletes and bodybuilders. [source].

Swearing Oaths

13th August 202514th August 2025 By Simon

Today we’re looking at the words for oath, vow, (to) swear and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	lug = oath lugyom = oath, swearing
Old Irish (Goídelc)	luige = oath, swearing lugae = oath luigid = to swear
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	luige, lug, luga, lugae = oath, (act of) swearing lugach = given to swearing, assertive, contentious luigid, luigaid = to swear
Irish (Gaeilge)	luigh [l̪ˠɪɟ / l̪ˠiː] = to swear (literary) luighe = oath
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lùgh [l̪ˠuː] = swear! curse! lùghadh [l̪ˠuː.əɣ] = (act of) swearing, oath, (act of) cursing lùighe [l̪ˠuːjə] = (act of) swearing, oath, (act of) cursing
Manx (Gaelg)	loo [luː] = oath, swear(ing), affidavit looee = oath
Proto-Brythonic	*lluɣ = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llv, llw = (solemn) oath, vow, oath, swear word, curse, blasphemy
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llw [ɬuː] = (solemn) oath, vow, oath, swear word, curse, blasphemy
Cornish (Kernewek)	li = oath lia = to swear, take an oath
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	dilu = oath
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	le, lé = oath, blasphemy leanty = convent
Breton (Brezhoneg)	le [leː] = oath, swear, vow leañ [ˈleː.ã] = to swear, take an oath leandi [leˈãn.di] = convent

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *lewgʰ- (to announce, tell, publicly) [source]. Words from the same roots include lie in English, liegen (to lie, tell lies) in Dutch, lügen (to tell a lie, to lie) in German, ljuga (to lie, to tell an untruth) in Swedish, łgać (to lie, feign, simulate) in Polish [source].

Proto-Celtic	tungeti = to swear (an oath) writ-tungeti = to counter-swear
Gaulish	toncsiiontio = (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	tongaid = to swear fristoing = to forswear
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	tongaid, toṅga, tongu = to swear, take an oath
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	tuinge = oath
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	twng, twg = a swearing, oath tyngu = to swear (an oath) gurthtygho, gurhtuc, gvrthegho, gurthtug = to counter-swear
Welsh (Cymraeg)	twng, twnc = a swearing, oath tyngu = to swear (an oath) camdyngu = to swear falsely, forswear cytyngu = to swear together, take a mutal oath gwrthdyngu = to counter-swear
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	ty = an oath, imprecation
Cornish (Kernewek)	ti = oath, vow, swear tia = to swear, vow
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	toeaff, touet = to swear, curse
Breton (Brezhoneg)	tou [tu:] = oath touiñ [ˈtuː.ĩ] = to swear, curse

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *h₂lewgʰ- (to announce), or from PIE *th₂négti (to touch, grasp; to take), from *teh₂g- (to touch, take) [source].

Proto-Celtic	*mandu = mark, sign, spot
Old Irish (Goídelc)	mind [mʲin͈d] = crown, insignia, oath
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	mind, minn = crown, diadem, oath, vow
Irish (Gaeilge)	mionn = crown, diadem, oath mionnach = swearing, given to swearing mionnadóir = swearer mionnaigh = to swear mionnú = swearing, adjuration mórmhionnach = addicted to swearing
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	mionn [mjũːn̪ˠ] = oath, curse, (act of) cursing, insignia mionnaichte [mjun̪ʲɪçdʲə] = bound by oath, sworn, avowed mionnan [mjun̪ˠan] = (act of) swearing an oath, (act of) cursing, small curse mionnach [mjuːn̪ˠəx] = pertaining to or abounding in oaths or curses, swearing, sweary, cursing mionn [mjũːn̪ˠ] =
Manx (Gaelg)	mian = to wish mianey = to wish, desire, hanker, fancy, long, lust mynney = to swear, swear-word, imprecation, oath-book
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	mann = spot, speck, blemish, stain, mark
Welsh (Cymraeg)	man [man] = spot, speck, blemish, stain, mark mannig = spot, dot, particle. breve (in music)

Etymology: uncertain [source], possibly from Proto-Indo-European *mend- (physical defect, fault) [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	móit = vow
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	móit, móid = vow, oath, wish, desire
Irish (Gaeilge)	móid [mˠoːdʲ] = vow móidach = votary, votive móidghealladh = solemn promise, profession móidigh = to vow móidín = devotee
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	mòid [mɔːdʲ] = oath, solemn promise, swearing, vow mòideachadh [mɔːdʲəxəɣ] = (act of) swearing, vowing

Etymology: from Latin vōtum (promise, dedication, vow, will, desire, prayer), from voveō (to vow, promise, dedicate), from Proto-Italic *wogʷeō (to vow, promise, dedicate), from Proto-Indo-European *h₁wogʷʰéyeti, from *h₁wegʷʰ- (to promise, vow, praise) [source].

First Things First

31st July 20253rd June 2026 By Simon

Words for first, before, previous, and related things in Celtic languages.

first things first

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	kentus = first kentuslongos = early meal kentusamonyos, kintusamīnos, kintusamonis = beginning of summer, May kentusedom = first seat
Gaulish	cintus = first (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cét- [ˈkʲeː.d] = first cétaín [ˈkʲeː.dai̯nʲ] = Wednesday (“first fast”) cétmuinter = spouse, wife cétnae = first, same cétóir = first time, beginning
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cét- [kax / kex] = first, early, primary, former cétad = seat, couch cétaín [ˈkʲeː.dai̯nʲ] = Wednesday cétlongad = fasting
Irish (Gaeilge)	céad [ciːa̯d̪ˠ / ceːd̪ˠ] = first Céadaoin [ˈceːd̪ˠiːnʲ] = Wednesday céalacan = morning fast
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ciad [kʲiad] = first ciadaineach [kʲiədɪn̪ʲəx] = pertaining to Wednesday, falling on a Wednesday DiCiadain [dʲɪˈkʲiədɪn̪ʲ] = Wednesday
Manx (Gaelg)	kied = first, primary, senior chied = first, initial, primary kied chouyr = first aid Crean = Mercury, Wednesday
Proto-Brythonic	kɨnt = earlier, sooner, before, former, previous kɨntüheð = porch, entry, court (?) *kɨntühaβ̃in = beginning of summer, first month of summer, May (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cin, kin, kyn(n), cynn = before, previous to, preceding cynda(i)d = ancestor, forefather kynt, cynt = earlier, sooner, former(ly), previous(ly), before, quicker, faster, swifter, rather (than) kyn(n)hayaf, kynhaeaf, cynhaeaf = harvest(-time), autumn kantaf, kyntaf, kyntaw, kentaf = swiftest, quickest, fastest, fleetest, first, foremost, chief, principal cyntedd = porch, lobby, vestibule, entry, court, forecourt kintevin, kynteuin, kyntefin = beginning of summer, first month of summer, May, spring, summer kythlwng = fasting, hunger
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cyn [kɨ̞n / kɪn] = before, previous to, preceding cynt [kɨ̞nt / kɪnt] = earlier, sooner, former(ly), previous(ly), before, quicker, faster, swifter, rather (than) cyntaf = swiftest, quickest, fastest, fleetest, first, foremost, chief, principal cynhaeaf = harvest(-time), autumn cyntedd [ˈkəntɛð] = porch, lobby, vestibule, entry, court, forecourt cyntefin [kənˈtɛvɪn] = beginning of summer, first month of summer, May, spring, summer cythlwng = fasting, hunger
Old Cornish	kyniaf = harvest(-time), autumn
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	cyn, cen, ken = first, before (that) cens, kens = before, formerly, rather cenzhoha, kenzhoha = the morning cynsa, censa, kensa = the first, chief cyniaf, kyniaw, cidniadh, cidniaz = autumn, harvest, time (“before winter”)
Cornish (Kernewek)	kyns, kens = former, previous, sooner, earlier, formerly, rather, before kyns ena, kens ena = previously, before then kynsa, kensa = first, initial kynser(es) = apprentice kynserneth = apprenticeship kynsistorek = prehistoric
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	quent = before quentaff = first
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kent [ˈkɛ̃nt] = before, previously, rather, preferably, prevous, prior kantad = ancestor kantael = primitive, primary kantaenn = principle kantañ [ˈkẽn.tã] = first, main, next, soon kentannezer = pioneer, pathfinder kentanv = first name kentocʼh [ˈkẽntɔx] = rather, instead kerkent [ˈkɛrkɛnt] = immediately, as soon as

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kéntus, from *ken- (to arise, begin) [Source]. Words from the same roots possibly include begin, recent in English, beginnen (to begin, commence, start) in German, cenau (cub, pup, whelp, rascal) in Welsh, cana (cub, whelp) in Irish, szczenię (puppy, cub) in Polish, and reciente (recent) in Spanish [Source].
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Each & Every

24th July 2025 By Simon

Words for each, every, all and related things in Celtic languages.

Each & Every

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷākʷos = everyone, everybody, each, every
Transalpine Gaulish	papos = each, every (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cách, cach [kax] = each, every, all, everyone cach la céin = one at a time cechtar = both, each
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cach, cech [kax / kex] = each, every, all, cách, cach = the one, each, everyone, all, the rest cechtar = each (of), both (of), either (of)
Irish (Gaeilge)	gach [ɡax / ɡɑx] = every, each, everything gach rud = everything gach aon, gach uile = every gach aon duine = each, every, person, everybody gach bliain, gach uile bhliain = every year ceachtar [ˈcaxt̪ˠəɾˠ] = either, one or other of two
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	gach [gax] = every, each, all, per gach a chèile = each other gach bliadhna = every year, annually gach dùrachd = best regards, yours sincerely gach pearsa = per capita gach ràith = every season, seasonally, every quarter, quarterly gach rud = everything gach uile [gax ulə] = every, each
Manx (Gaelg)	dagh [dax] = each, every, both, singular gagh = each, every dagh blein, gagh blein = annually, yearly dagh laa, gagh laa = daily, every day gagh-laa = ordinary dagh ooilley, dagh un = every dagh unnane = every one dagh ynnyd, dagh ooilley ard, dagh ooilley raad = everywhere dagh ooilley nhee = everything dagh ooilley phersoon = everybody dagh ooilley raad = everywhere cagh = all, everyone, everybody cagh elley = everyone else, rest cagh yt cheilley = reciprocal
Proto-Brythonic	pọb, pāpos = every, each (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	paup = every, each
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pop, pob = every, each, all, all manner of, every type of pobed = entirety pobua, pop wa, pob va = everywhere, every place pob uann, popmann, pop mann = everywhere, every place, every part pob un, pob vn, pobun everyone, everybody, each one, every (single) one, all
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pob [poːb] = every, each, all, all manner of, every type of pob dim, popeth = everything pobfa, pob fa = everywhere, every place pob lle poblle = every place, everywhere poblleath, pobmanrwydd = ubiquity, omnipresence pobman, pob man = everywhere, every place, every part pobun, pob un everyone, everybody, each one, every (single) one, all
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pép, péb = every one pob, póp, pôb, pôp, pûb, pûp = every, all pop, pób = every, each pepynag, pepenag = whatsoever, whatever
Cornish (Kernewek)	peub, pob = all, everybody, everyone pub = each, every pub eur = always pub huni = everybody, everyone pub le = everywhere pub pres, pub prys, pub termyn = always, all the time pub tra, puptra = everything pub dedhyek, pubdedhyek = daily pubonan, pubonen = everybody
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	pop = each, every
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	pep = each, every pep vnan = each and every, everybody, everyone
Breton (Brezhoneg)	pep [pep] = each, every a bep eil = alternatively in turns bemdez [ˈbɛmde(s)] = every day bemnoz [ˈbɛmnos] = every night pep hini, pep unan = each and every, everybody, everyone (a) pep lec’h = everywhere pep tro = every time

Etymology: either from Proto-Indo-European *kʷo-h₃kʷ-os, from *kʷós (which, what) and *h₃kʷ-os (to see), or from PIE *kʷeh₂-kʷos [Source]. Words from the same roots possibly include how in English, hoe (how) in Dutch, hve (how, like as) in Icelandic, con (with, together) in Italian, com (with, against, together) in Portuguese, cu in Romanian, and cual (like, as, in the manner of) in Spanish [Source].
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Proto-Celtic	*olyos = all
Gaulish	ollos = everything, everyone (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	(h)uile, (h)ule [(h)ˈulʲe] = all, whole
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	uile [ˈulʲə] = all, every, the whole, everyone
Irish (Gaeilge)	uile [ˈɪlʲə / ˈɛlʲə] = all, every, whole, wholly, entirely uilechoiteann = general, universal uilechumhachtach = omnipotent, almighty uilefheasach = omniscient uilefhóinteach = all-purpose uileghabhálach = comprehensive, compendious, exhaustive uileláithreach = omnipresent, ubiquitous uiliteach = omnivorous
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	uile [ulə] = all, every, entire, total uil-fhiosrach = all-knowing, omniscient uile-amasach [ɯl aməsəx] = all-purpose uile-bhiast = monster uile-chinnteachd = surety, certainty uile-choitcheann [ulə xɔhdʲçən̪ˠ] = universal uileas [uləs] = all, every
Manx (Gaelg)	ooilley [ulʲə / ulʲu] = all, whole, entire, everyone, everybody ooilley cooidjagh all together ooilley kiart = all right, alright, OK ooilley dy lieragh = altogether ooilley mygeart = all around, everywhere, round about, rampant ooilley-niartal = almighty ooilley smaghtagh = totalitarian
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	hol = all, the whole, everything, everyone
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	oll, holl = all, the whole, everything, everyone, holla()l hollaul, hollawl, hollaỽl = whole, complete, entire holl gyuoethaỽc, hollgyuoethauc, hollgyuoethawc = almighty, omnipotent, all-powerful
Welsh (Cymraeg)	holl, oll [hoːɬ] = all, the whole, everything, everyone, entire, complete, total, completely, entirely oll yn oll = all in all (h)ollfydol = cosmic, universal, global (h)ollgyfoethog = almighty, omnipotent, all-powerful (h)ollol = whole, complete, entire (h)olloldeb, hollolrwydd = universality, generality (h)ollwybodol = omniscient, all-knowing, know-alls (h)ollysydd = omnivore
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	oll, ol = all, every olgallusec, olgalluster = almighty
Cornish (Kernewek)	oll = all, every, entirely, everything oll termyn = enduring, etermal, everlasting olldalghus = comprehensive, global ollgallos = omnipotence ollgallosek, ollgallojek = almighty ollgemmyn, ollgebmyn = general ollgompassus = holistic ollvys, ollves = universe ollvysel, ollvesel = global, universal
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	oll = everything, everyone
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	holl, hol, oll = everything, everyone
Breton (Brezhoneg)	holl [ɔl] = everything, everyone, completely, totally holl-razh = completely hollad = total hollat = global, total hollbad = perpetual, permanent hollegezh = generality hollegour [ɔˈleːɡur] = generalist hollek [ˈɔlːek] = general, uncountable hollved [ˈɔlvet] = universe

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂olyos, from *h₂el- (beyond, other) [source]. Words from the same roots include altro (other, another, more, further) in Italian, autre (another) in French, otro (other, another) in Spanish, allur (all, everybody) in Icelandic, al (all, any) in Danish, and all and alter(native) in English [source]

Celtiadur

Exploring connections between Celtic languages

Category: Gaulish

My, Myself & I

You Yourself

Shining Bright

Confluent Ravines

Bushy Hedges

A Stack of Heaps

Whey

Swearing Oaths

First Things First

Each & Every