You Yourself

18th August 202618th August 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for you and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	tū = you (singular), thou towe = your, thy
Gaulish	tu = you (singular), thou
Old Irish (Goídelc)	tú [t̪uː] = you (singular) tussu, túsu [ˈt̪u.su] = you (singular, emphatic) do = your (singular)
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	tú, tu = you (singular) túsu, túsu, tussu, tússu = you (singular, emphatic) do = your (singular)
Irish (Gaeilge)	tú [t̪ˠuː] = you (singular) tú fhéin [t̪ˠuː heːnʲ] = yourself tusa [ˈt̪ˠɞsˠə / ˈt̪ˠɨsˠə] = you (singular, emphatic) do = your (singular)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	thu [u] = you (singular) thu fhèin [u heːn] = yourself thusa [ˈusə] = you (singular, emphatic) do [də] = your (singular), thy
Manx (Gaelg)	oo [u(ː)] = you (singular) oo-hene [u heːn] = yourself uss [ˈt̪u.su] = you (singular, emphatic) dty = your (singular)
Proto-Brythonic	*ti = you (singular)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	ti = you (singular)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ti, ty = you (singular), thou, thee titheu, thithau = you too, you also, even you dy (… di) = your (singular), thy, thine
Welsh (Cymraeg)	ti [tiː] = you (singular) chdi [χdiː] = you (singular – northern) tithau [ˈtɪθaɨ̯] = you too, you also, even you chdithau [ˈχdiːθaɨ̯] = you too, etc (northern) dy (… di) [də] = your (singular) dy hun(an) [də ˈhɨ̞nan / də ˈhiːnan] = yourself
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	ti, te, ty = thou, thee da, dha, dhe = your (singular)
Cornish (Kernewek)	ty, che, chy = you (singular) dha, ‘th = your (singular) dha honan = yourself
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	ti, te = you (singular)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	te = you (singular)
Breton (Brezhoneg)	te [teː] = you (singular) te ivez [teː] = you (singular, emphatic) teal [ˈteː.al] = to address someone informally (with te) da = your (singular) da-unan = yourself

Etymology: from PIE *túh₂ (you, thou) [source] and *téwe (your) [source]. Many words for you (singular) in other Indo-European languages come from the same roots [source].

Proto-Celtic	swīs = you (plural) swīswīs = you (plural, emphatic)
Gaulish	suis = you (plural)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	sib, sí(i) [ˈsʲiβʲ / ˈsʲiː] = you (plural), ye sibsi, sissi [ˈsʲiβʲ / ˈsʲi.sʲi] = you (plural, emphatic) for = your (plural)
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	sib = you (plural) sis(s)i = you (plural, emphatic) for, far = your (plural)
Irish (Gaeilge)	sibh [ʃɪvʲ] = you (plural) sibh fhéin [ʃɪvʲ heːnʲ] = yourselves sibhse [ˈʃivʲʃə] = you (plural, emphatic) bhur = your (plural)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sibh [ʃɪv] = you (plural) sibh fhèin [ʃɪv heːnʲ] = yourselves sibhsa [ʃiːvʃə] = you (plural, emphatic) ur n- [ər n] = your (plural)
Manx (Gaelg)	shiu [ʃuː] = you (plural) shiu-hene [ʃuːhen] = yourselves shiush [ˈʃuːʃ] = you (plural, emphatic) nyn = your (plural)
Proto-Brythonic	hwi = you (plural) hwihwi = you (plural, emphatic)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	hui = you (plural)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	chwi, chi = you, ye (plural) chw(i)chwi = you, ye (plural, emphatic), you yourselves y ch, ych, ‘ch = your (plural)
Welsh (Cymraeg)	chwi, chi [χ(w)ɪ] = you (plural) chi hun(ain) [χɪ ˈhɨ̞n(ai̯n) / ˈhiːn(ai̯n)] = yourselves chithau [ˈχɪθaɨ̯ / ˈχɪθai̯] = you also, and you too chwychwi, chwchwim chychwi = you (plural, emphatic), you yourselves eich (… chi) [ei̯χ] = your (plural)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	hwi, hwî, why = ye, you (plural) agas, ages, agis, agos, agys = your (plural) ages honan = yourselves
Cornish (Kernewek)	hwi, hwei = you (plural) hwyhwi = you (plural, emphatic) agas, ‘gas, ‘s [aɡəs / aɡəz] = your (plural) agas honan = yourselves
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	hui = you (plural)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	huy = you (plural) hoz, ho = your (plural)
Breton (Brezhoneg)	c’hwi, hwi [ˈxwiː] = you (plural) c’hwi ivez = you (plural, emphatic) c’hwial [ˈxwiːal] = to address someone formally (with c’hwi) ho, hoc’h = your (plural) hoc’h-unan = yourselves

Etymology: from PIE *wos, the oblique form of *yúHs (you (plural)) [source]. Many words for you (plural) in other Indo-European languages come from the same roots [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Shining Bright

7th August 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for clear, bright, shining and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*gleiwos = shining, clear, sparkling
Gaulish	*gleuos = bright, shiny
Old Irish (Goídelc)	glé [ˈɡʲlʲeː] = bright, clear, plain glésse = brightness
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	glé, gle = clear, plain, evident gléid = to make clear, purify, clear up gleóir = clear, luminous, bright gléthech = bright, pure
Irish (Gaeilge)	glé [ɟlʲeː] = clear, bright, vivid, limpid, pure, lucid, luminous, intense, sharp gléine = brilliance, clarity, crispness, lucidity, luminosity, sharpness, vibrancy
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	glè† [gleː] = real, pure, clean, good, open, plain
Proto-Brythonic	*gluɨw = bright, shining, sparkling
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	gloiu = bright, shining, sparkling
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gloev, gloyw, gloew = bright, shining, sparkling gloewi, gloywi = to brighten, polish, clarify gloywder, gloewder = brightness, clearness, splendour, radience gloewed = clearness, brightness, radiance, glory, praise gloewr = polisher, burnisher
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gloyw [ˈɡlɔɨ̯.u / ˈɡlɔi̯.u] = bright, shining, sparkling, polished, burnished, clear, limpid, lucid, transparent, definite gloywder = brightness, clearness, splendour, radience gloywedd = clearness, brightness, radiance, glory, praise gloywi = to brighten, polish, clarify gloywwr = polisher, burnisher Caerloyw = Gloucester
Cornish (Kernewek)	gluw = shining
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	gloeu = clear
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	gloeu = clear
Breton (Brezhoneg)	gloev = clear, limpid, bloated, rare gloevenn = to become sparse, to thin out

Etymology: from PIE *ǵʰley- (to shine) [source].

Glēvum, the Latin name for Gloucester, also comes from the same Proto-Celtic roots [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include glimma (to glimmer, gleam, shine) in Swedish, glitzern (to glitter, sparkle) in German, glær (clear, transparent) in Icelandic, and glimmer, gleam, glint, glisten, glitter and gloom in English [source].

For more words for bright, etc, see the Bright Lights post.

Confluent Ravines

31st July 202631st July 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for ravine and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	komberos. komboros = place where river water brews up, confluence (place where rivers meet), dam, barrage
Gaulish	*comberos = river dam
Old Irish (Goídelc)	commar = confluence, meeting place
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	commar, commur, commor = confluence (of rivers), assembly, meeting place
Irish (Gaeilge)	cumar = ravine (usually with a stream), steep-sided inlet (of the sea), channel, rut cumarach = channelled, rutted
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	comar [komər] = confluence, concourse comarach [komərəx] = pertaining to or abounding in confluences; confluent
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	cmer = confluence, meeting of waters, meeting place or clash of armies
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cimer, kimer = confluence, meeting of waters, meeting place or clash of armies
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cymer [ˈkəmɛr] = confluence (of rivers or streams), meeting of waters, meeting place or clash of armies
Cornish (Kernewek)	kemper = confluence, junction of streams
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kember [ˈkɛm.bɛr] = confluence kemberiñ [kɛm.ˈbeː.rĩ] = to converge

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *kom- (with, together) and *berwos- (stew), from PIE *ḱóm (beside, near, by with) and *bʰrewh₁ (to boil, brew).

Words from the same Proto-Celtic roots, via Gaulish *comberos and Latin combrus (river dam, may include encombrer (to block off, clutter, congest, encumber, burden) in French, escombrar (to clear out, clean out) in Spanish, and cumbersome, encumber and incumbrance in English [source].

Words from the same PIE roots possibly include berwi (to boil) and brwd (eager, keen) in Welsh, brænde (to burn, distill) in Danish, brouwen (to brew) in Dutch, brouiller (to blur, confuse) in French, bruth (heat, rash) in Irish, and bread, brew, broth, burn, fervor in English [source].

For more words for confluence and related things see the Rivers Mouths post.

Binding Fastenings

9th July 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for binding, fastening and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	rigo- = to bind komrigā = binding, bond
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cuimrech [ˈku.β̃ʲɾʲəx] = binding, bond, fastening, fetter, captivity
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cuimrech, cuiṁbrech, cuibrech = act of binding, fastening, fettering, imprisoning, captivity, bond, fetter, chain
Irish (Gaeilge)	cuibhreach = binding, fetter, trammel cuibhrigh = bind, fetter
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cuibhreach [kɯivrəx] = chain, trammel cuibhreachadh [kɯivrʲəxəɣ] = (act of) binding, fettering, restricting, restriction cuibhreachail [kɯivrʲəxal] = limiting, restrictive
Proto-Brythonic	*korrɨɣ = thong (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	corruui = thong, lace, leather strap, rein
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	karrei = thong, lace, leather strap, rein
Welsh (Cymraeg)	carrai [ˈkara / ˈkarɛ] = thong, lace, leather strap, rein, leash
Cornish (Kernewek)	kevren = bond, link, share kevrenna = to share kevrennek, kevrenoges = participant, stakeholder, participating
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	comreg = tie, bond, connection (?)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	corre-enn, qévre, qevre = tie, bond, connection
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kevre [keːvre] = tie, bond, connection, link, agreement, alliance kevread = bond, league kevreadenn = hook-up, connection, link kevreañ = to connect, to join forces kevreded = federation, association, alliance

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *(H)reyǵ- (to bind, reach), possibly via Latin corrigia (shoelace, tie, thong whip) [source]. Words from the same roots include correggia (leather strap or belt, thong) in Italian, courroie (strap, belt, band, strip) in French [source].

Proto-Celtic	gem-, gem-eno-, *gemelo- = shackle, chain
Old Irish (Goídelc)	gemel = chain, fetter gébend = bond, fetter, captivity
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	gemel, gemeal = fetter, chain, gyve gemlech, geimhlech = a fettered person, a prisoner, a hostage, fettered, captive gébend = bond, fetter, captivity
Irish (Gaeilge)	geimheal = fetter, shackle, chain geimhleach = fettered person, captive, prisoner; fettered, captive, held in bondage geimhligh = fetter, shackle, chain géibheann [ˈɟeːvʲən̪ˠ] = bond, fetter, bondage, captivity, strait, difficulty, distress, need géibheannach [ˈɟeːvʲən̪ˠəx] = person in bonds, person in fetters, captive géibheannas = bondage, sore distress
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	geamhal = fetter, shackle, gyve geimheal = fetter, shackle, gyve geimhleach [gʲevləx] = fetter, captive, slave gèibhinn = fetter
Manx (Gaelg)	geuley = manacle, chain, bond, shackle geulaghey = manacle, chain, shackle, bind in chains geuleydagh = bondman, chain
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	gebin = fetter, shackle
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	geuyn, gefyn, gevyn = fetter, shackle, gyve, manacle, chain geuynnedig = shackled, fettered gefynnu = to shackle, fetter, manacle gevynnauc = shackled, fettered
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gefyn = fetter, shackle, gyve, manacle, chain gefynedig = shackled, fettered gefynnaf, gefynnu = to shackle, fetter, manacle, couple, link gefynnog = shackled, fettered

Etymology: from from Proto-Indo-European *gem- (to press, grasp) [source]. Words from the same roots include gyve (shackle or fetter, especially for the leg; to shackle, to fetter, to chain) in English, жать (žatʹ – to press, squeeze, lift) in Russian, ožeti (to squeeze) in Slovenian, ždímat (to wring) in Czech, and γεμίζω (gemízo – to fill, stuff) in Greek [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	sibal = clasp, pin
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	sibal(l) = a clasp, buckle, pin
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	fual = fetter, gyve, shackle, bond
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	hual = fetter, gyve, shackle, bond hualu = to fetter, manacle, shackle, chain, hobble, restrict, restrain hualawc, hualoc, hualog, hualawg = fettered, shackled, trammelled, tethered
Welsh (Cymraeg)	hual = fetter, gyve, shackle, bond, hobble, restriction, restraint, check, trammel, hindrance, impediment hualaf, hualu = to fetter, manacle, shackle, chain, hobble, restrict, restrain hualedig = fettered or manacled, shackled, tethered hualog = fettered, shackled, trammelled, tethered
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	fual, fu, hual = fetter, shackle
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	hual = shackle hualaff = to hinder, impede, obstruct
Breton (Brezhoneg)	hual = shackle, leg irons, anti-theft device hualañ [hyˈɑːlã] = to shackle, put in irons, subjugate, subdue hualet = hindered dishualañ [di.syˈɑː.lã] = to emancipate, deliver, liberate, unshackle

Etymology: possibly from or related to Latin fibula (clasp, buckle, brooch) [source]. Words from the same roots include sivella (buckle) in Catalan, fibbia (buckle, clasp) in Italian, and hebilla (buckle, clasp) in Spanish [source].

Thorny Brambles

17th June 202617th June 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for bramble, briar, thorn and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	dristis, drissis = briar, bramble, thorn bush
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dris [ˈd̠ʲɾʲisʲ] = bramble, briar
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dris = bramble, briar, thorn bush drisech = thorny, brambly
Irish (Gaeilge)	dris [dʲɾʲɪʃ] = bramble, briar, a cantankerous, prickly person drischoill = bramble brake driseach = brambly, briary driseog = (small) bramble, a prickly, irritable person drisín = small bramble drisíneach = prickly, irritable, touchy
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dris [driʃ] = thorn, a thorny plant, small pin driseach [driʃəx] = prickly, thorny, brambly driseag [driʃag] = small thorn, small thorny plant driseil [driʃal] = prickly, thorny drisleach [driʃləx] = thorny thicket, briar patch, thicket of brambles
Manx (Gaelg)	dress = blackberry bush, briar, bramble dressag = small bramble bush dressagh = brambly, briary
Proto-Brythonic	*drɨs = dry
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	drissi = briars, brambles, thorn bushes
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	dyrys [ˈdərɨ̞s / ˈdərɪs] = wild, rough, uncultivated drissi, dris, dryssi, drysi = briars, brambles, thorn bushes dryssyant, drysiant = entanglement, perplexity, quandary
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dyrys [ˈdərɨ̞s / ˈdərɪs] = wild, rough, uncultivated, tangled with undergrowth, thorny, dense, matted, intricate, entangled drys(i) [ˈdrəsɪ / ˈdrəsi] = briars, brambles, thorn bushes, entanglement, intricacy drysiant = entanglement, perplexity, quandary drysïog = full of briars or brambles, thorny drysle, dyrysle = intricate place, maze, labyrinth, bramble-brake, thicket dryslyd, dyryslyd = perplexing, puzzling, embarrassing, tangled, intricate, puzzled, confused, bewildered, deranged
Old Cornish	dreis = brambles, briars
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	dreis, dreyn = brambles, briars
Cornish (Kernewek)	dreys = brambles dreysen = bramble dreysa = to tangle
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dres = brambles dresen = bramble
Breton (Brezhoneg)	drez [dreːs] = brambles drezenn = bramble drezad = brambles drezeg [ˈdreː.zɛk] = bramble patch, bramble thicket drezek = full of brambles drezid = bramble grove

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *der- (to split, separate, tear, crack, shatter) [source].

Side by Side

19th May 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for side, flank and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*toibos = side
Old Irish (Goídelc)	tóeb, táeb, toíb, taeb [ˈt̪oːi̯β / ˈt̪aːi̯β / ˈt̪oːi̯β] = side strong>lettáeb [ˈl̠ʲe.t̪aːi̯β] = side
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	taeb, tóib, tóeb, tuib = side, direction, part, region taebán, tóeban = little side, side, rafter
Irish (Gaeilge)	taobh [t̪ˠeːvˠ / t̪ˠiːvˠ] = side, border, edge, flank, aspect, direction, region, point of view, attitude, party, team, faction, cause, line of descent, reliance, dependence, recourse, resort taobhach = lateral, trusting, partial, biased taobhacht = trustfulness, confidence, tendentiousness, partiality taobhagán = hypotenuse taobhaí = companion, adherent, supporter taobhaigh = to draw near, approach, side with, support, rely on, trust, entrust to, urge, enjoin taobhaíocht = support taobhaitheoir = supporter, sympathizer aontaobhach = unilateral déthaobhach = bilateral, double-sided comhthaobhach = collateral leataobh = one side (of two), lay-by leataobhach = one-sided, lopsided, tilted, partial, biased do leataobh, i leataobh = aside
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	taobh [tɯːv] = side, flank, angle, aspect, facet, direction, way, point of view, liking, partiality, coast taobh a-muigh = outside, exterior taobh a-staigh = inside, interior aon-taobhach = one-sided, unilateral dà-thaobhach = double-sided, duplex, bilateral co-thaobhach [kɔ hɯːvəx] = aligning, collateral ri taobh = beside, by the side of, by, next to
Manx (Gaelg)	çheu [tʃeu] = side, beam, standpoint, page çheumooie = outside, without, outboard, exterior çheusthie = inside, within, indoor, interior, inland, inner un-çheuagh = unilateral daa-heuagh = bilateral co’heuagh = collateral
Proto-Brythonic	*tʉβ = side
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	tu = side
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	tu = side tú há, tu a, tua, tv ac = towards, facing tu dalen, tvdalen = page
Welsh (Cymraeg)	tu [tɨː / tiː] = side, edge, flank, direction, area, district, region, place, point of view tu allan / tu fas = outside, exterior tu mewn = inside tu ôl = behind tua [tɨː.a / tiː.a] = towards, facing, around, in relation to, about, approximately tuaf, tuo = to tend, incline, side, lean towards, direct tudalen [tɨ̞ˈdalɛn / tɪˈdaːlɛn] = page (one side of a leaf of a book)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	tu = side, part, region tuhe, tyha = towards
Cornish (Kernewek)	tu [tyː / tiˑʊ] = side, direction, bearing tu a-ves = exterior tuedh = tendency, trend tuedha (troha / war-tu ha) = to tend (towards) tuedhder = orientation heptu [hɛpˈtyː / həpˈtiˑʊ] = neutral, nonaligned untu [ˈʏnty / ˈɪntɪʊ] = unilateral, one-sided war-tu = towards
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	tu = side tu-hont, tuhont = over there
Breton (Brezhoneg)	tu [tyː] = side, direction tu-hont = over there tuad = side, direction tuadur = position, location, orientation

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *(s)teygʷ- (flank, side). Words from the same PIE root possibly include стегно [steːɡno] (thigh) in Serbian, and stehno (thigh) in Czech [source].

Smoothly Slippery

14th January 202614th January 2026 By Simon

Words for slippery, smooth and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	slimnos, slimonos = smooth, slippery
Old Irish (Goídelc)	slemon = slippery, smooth, polished, courteous slemnaigid = smooth, polish
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	slemon, slemain = smooth, polished, sleek, slippery, smooth, calm, temperate, gentle, affable, courteous slemnán = smoothness, flattery, cajoling talk sleimne, slemnae = smoothness, slipperiness, gentleness slemnaigid = to make smooth, polish, lubricate, soften, slip, slide
Irish (Gaeilge)	sleamhain [ˈʃlʲawənʲ / ˈʃl̠ʲãuwənʲ] = smooth, slippery, sleek, slippery, sly sleamhaine = smoothness, sleekness, slipperiness sleamhnaigh = to slide, to slip, to go unnoticed, to smooth sleamhnán = slide, runner, bob (of sledge), chute, shoot, slippery sleamhnánach = smooth, slippery, sly sleamhnánaí = slippery / sly person sleamhnú = to slide, slip, slither
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sleamhainn [ʃl̪ʲɛ̃ũ.ɪn̪ʲ] = slippery, smooth strong>sleamhaineag [ʃl̪ʲãũ.ɪn̪ʲag] = slide
Manx (Gaelg)	shliawin, sliawin, shliawn [ʃlʲãunʲ] = slippery, smooth, sly, sleek, soapy, insidious, lubricated, greasy shliawinaghey = to become slippery shliawney = slippery shliawinane = chute, slide, glide, runner, slipway, shoot shliawinid = smoothness, slipperiness, slyness, insidiousness
Proto-Brythonic	*llɨβ̃n = coal (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	linīnt = to make smooth (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llywin, llyfyn, llyfnet, llyvn = smooth, level, plain, flat, polished, slippery llyfnu, Llyfny = to harrow, to make smooth, to pat, to polish
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llyfn [ɬɨ̞vn / ɬɪvn] = smooth, level, plain, flat, polished, slippery llyfnaf, llyfnu = to harrow, to make smooth, to pat, to polish llyfndra = smoothness, levelness, evenness, sleekness, ease, fluency llyfnedig = smoothed, polished
Middle Cornish (Cernewec . Kernuak)	leven = smooth, even, level
Cornish (Kernewek)	leven = even, level, plain, smooth levena = to smooth levender = evenness levenhe = to level levenheans = terracing
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	limn = smooth (?)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dileffn = smooth, plain, polished
Breton (Brezhoneg)	levn [ˈlẽwn] = smooth, plain, polished levnaat = smooth, smoothing levnadur = polishing, smoothing levnañ [ˈlẽw.nːã] = to slip levnenn = polished

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *(s)ley- (slime, slimy, sticky, slippery). Words from the same roots possibly include slime in English, slijm (slime, mucus) in Dutch, Schleim (mucus, slime) in German, limon (silt) in French and limo (mud, slime, slit) in Spanish [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Geriafurch, TermOfis

What?

12th November 202512th November 2025 By Simon

Words for what? which? who? where? and related things in Celtic languages.

What?

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷid? = what?
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cid? = what? cote, cate, catte [ˈko.d̠ʲe] = of what sort is …? what is …?
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cote, coteeet, codde, cate, cati, cáte = what (is)?
Irish (Gaeilge)	cad? [kad̪ˠ] = what? where? (in Munster) cad é? [kəd̪ˠˈeː] = what? (in Connacht & Ulster) cad é mar (atá tú)? = how (are you)? (in Ulster) céard? [ceːɾˠd̪ˠ] = what? (in Connacht) goidé? [ɡəˈtʲeː] = what? (in Connacht & Ulster) cad chuige? [kɑt̪ˠ ˈxɪɟɪ / kəˈt̪ˠiɟə] = why? (in Mayo,& Ulster) cad ina thaobh? [ˌkɑn̪ˠəˈheːvˠ] = why? (in Munster)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ciod? [kʲid] = what? ciod air bith = whichever, whatever ciod e? = what? ciod thuige? [kʲid hugʲə] = why? dè? [dʲeː] = what? who? dè man? dè mar? [deː man / dʲeː mar] = how?
Manx (Gaelg)	cre? = what? cre fa? = why? cre wooad? = how much? quoid? = how many? how much?
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	pa? = what? which?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pa? py? = what? which? paham? pam? = why? reason, cause, question
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pa? [paː] = what? which? paham? pam? = why? reason, cause, question pa bryd? = when? at what time? pa un? p’un? = who(m)? which (one)?
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pe? pa? py? = what? which? where? pa le? = where place? where? pahan = what perag? prâg? = for what? wherefore? why? pattel? patla? fattel? fatla? = how? by what means? pe? pa? py? =
Cornish (Kernewek)	py? pe? = what? which? py lies? = how many? pyth? = what?, that which ple? = where? prag? = why? what for? fatla? = how?
Old Breton	pe? = what?
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	pe? pé? = what? peguement? pe quement? = how much? how many? pe en lech? = where? penaus? penos? = how? perac? pe-rac? = why? petra? = who? what?
Breton (Brezhoneg)	pe? [peː] = which one? pegeit? [peˈɡɛjt] = how long? how far? pegement? [pe.ˈɡẽ.mːɛnt] = how much? how many? pegoulz? [pe.ˈɡuls] = when? pehini? [peˈ(h)ĩːni] = which one? pelec’h? [peˈlɛːx] = where? penaos? [pẽ.ˈnɔːs] = how? perak? [pe.ˈrɑːk] = why? peseurt? [peˈsøʁt] = what? what kind? petra? [ˈpe.tʁa] = who? what?

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kʷid (what? which?) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include çë (what?) in Albanian, kas (that, which, who) in Latvian, что (što – that, what, which) in Russian, che (what, which) in Italian, ¿qué? (what? which?) in Spainish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*kʷei? = who?
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cía = what? where? who? how? if, although cía airet? = how long? cía airm? cairm? airm? = where? cía chruth? = how? cía méit? = how many? how much?
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cía? ce? ci? = who? what? how? where?
Irish (Gaeilge)	cá? = what? how? where? cá hait? = (at) what place? where? cá huair? = at what hour? when? cá fhad? = how long? cá mhéad? = how much? how much? cé? = who? cén? = what? which?
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cò? [koː] = who(m)? where? cò idir = whoever cò ann? = wherein? cò as? [ko as] = where from?
Manx (Gaelg)	quoi? [kwəi] = who? whom? which? whichever, who? quoi erbee = who(so)ever, whom(so)ever quoi jeu? = which one? quoid? c’wooad? = how many? how much?
Proto-Brythonic	*puɨ? = who?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pwy? = who(m)? what? pwy bynnac, pwybynnag = whoever
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pwy? [puːɨ̯ / pʊi̯] = who(m)? what? pwy bynnag = whoever
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pew? pyw? p(y)u? piwa? = who? pywpenag, piwha bennac, piwa bennac, pyu penagh = who(s)ever
Cornish (Kernewek)	piw? [piˑʊ] = who? piw penag, piw pynag = whoever piw? = who?
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	piu? = who?
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	piu? piou? = who? piupennac, piu pennac, piou bennac = whoever
Breton (Brezhoneg)	piv? [piw] = who? piv bennak = whoever pivelezh = identity

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kʷís (who? what? which, that) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include ca (than, as) in Romanian, hve (how, like, as) in Icelandic, how and when in English, and hoe (how) in Dutch [source].

Tenacious Toughness

5th November 2025 By Simon

Words for tough, tenacious, stiff and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*reginis = hard, stiff, tough
Old Irish (Goídelc)	rigin = hard, tough, slow
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	rigin = tough, hard, unyielding, slow, dilatory, prolix, slow-moving, tranquil rigne = tenacity, toughness, slowness, prolixity, sluggishness
Irish (Gaeilge)	righin [ɾˠiːnʲ] = tough, tenacious, unyielding, stubborn, slow, deliberate, lingering, tardy, vicous, stringy, ropy righne = toughness righneáil = (act of) lingering, loitering, dawdling righneálach = lingering, loitering, dawdling righneálaí = lingerer, loiterer, dawdler, stubborn person righneas = toughness, tenacity, stubborness, slowness, tardiness, viscosity righnigh = to toughen, persevere, linger, delay, become viscid
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	righinn [r̪ʲi.ɪn̪ʲ] = stiff, tough, sticky, adhesive righinn-bheulach = tight-lipped rìghneas [r̪ʲiːnəs] = stiffness, tenacity
Manx (Gaelg)	reen = hard, rigid, stiff, unyielding, thick-skinned reenagh = stringy, toughish, tight reenaghey = stiffen, toughen(ing) reeneyder = stiffener, toughener, tonic reenid = rigidity, starkness, toughness
Proto-Brythonic	*rrėɣɨn = (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	Regin = tribal name
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	rein, rain, rhain = stiff (of corpse), stone-dead, rigid, stiffened
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhain [r̥ai̯n] = stiff (of corpse), stone-dead, rigid, stiffened

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *regeti (to stretch, to straighten), from Proto-Indo-European *h₃réǵeti (to be straightening, from *h₃réǵ- (to straighten, to righten) [source].

Words from the same roots include rail, rank, realm, regime, regular and rule in English, Regel (rule) in German, rang (row, line, position) in French, rheng (rank, row) in Welsh, reja (grate, grating, grille) in Spanish, rank [source].

Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	serth = steep, sloping, precipitous, high syrthaỽ, syrthav = to fall, tumble, prostrate oneself
Welsh (Cymraeg)	serth = steep, sloping, precipitous, high, straight, vertical, upright, discourteous, uncivil, insulting, curt, surly, unseemly, uncouth serthaf, serthu = to become steep, to revile, abuse, malign serthaidd = steep, precipitous, discourteous serthrwydd = steepness, obscenity, ribaldry syrth(i)af, syrth(i)o [ˈsərθjɔ] = to fall, tumble, prostrate oneself
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	serth = stiff, hard
Cornish (Kernewek)	serth = abrupt, erect, stiff, upright, vertical serthals = precipice serthi = to rise up sharply serthter = abruptness, inflexibility, rigidity, rigour, steepness, stiffness, verticality
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	serz = abrupt, tightly, firmly
Breton (Brezhoneg)	serzh [ˈsɛrs] = steep, robust, stable serzhañ = to tackle, to go back up serzhded = escarpment, cliff serzhder = perpendicularity serzhdenn = ascent, solid, robust

Etymology: unknown, possibly related to start in English, styrte (to rush, fall down, overthrow, jump) in Dutch, and stürzen (to fall down, drop, tumble) in German [source].

Proto-Celtic	razgo / ringo- = torture (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	riag = torture
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ríag = torture
Irish (Gaeilge)	riagh = rack, torture, execute (literary)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	rag [r̪ˠag] = inflexible, rigid, stiff, pig-headed, stubborn, stark, tense ragach [r̪ˠagəx] = stiff, tough ragadh [r̪ˠagəɣ] = (act of) stiffening, making rigid, benumbing ragaireachd [r̪ˠagɪrʲəxg] = extortion
Manx (Gaelg)	rag = stiff
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reut [røːt] = stiff, rigid, sharp, stocky reutaat = to stiffen reutadur = stiffening, rigidification reutaer = stiffener reuted = rigidity

Etymology (Breton): from Old French roide (stiff, straight, steep, abrupt), from Latin rigidus (stiff, rigid, hard, stern), from rigeō (to be stiff, stiffen) from Proto-Italic *rigēō, from Proto-Indo-European *Hreyǵ- (to stretch out, reach, bind) [source]. The Goidelic words come from the same PIE roots, via Proto-Celtic *rigo- (to stretch) [source].

Words from the same roots include raide (stiff, straight, steep, abrupt) in French, rigid in English, recio (tough, robust, strong) in Spanish and rijo (hard, tough, stiff, wiry) in Portuguese [source].

Crested Combs

24th September 2025 By Simon

Words for comb, crest furrow and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kīsrā = comb
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cír [ˈkʲiːɾ] = comb, rake, crest, tip
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cír, cir = comb, rake, crest, tip círach = crested helmet círaid = to comb, to smooth out círán, círín = crest círmaire, cirmure = comber or fuller of cloth, comb maker
Irish (Gaeilge)	cíor [ciːɾˠ / ciəɾˠ] = comb, crest, cud; to comb, examine minutely, search cíorach = toothed cíoradh = combing, discussion, examination, hair-pulling, quarrelling cíoradóir = comber cíorán, círín = crest cíorláil = combing, searching, rough handling; to comb, search, rummage cíorlálaí = searcher, rummager, rough customer cíormhaire = (wool) comber, fuller, comb maker
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cìr [kʲiːrʲ] = comb, cud, honeycomb cìreadh [kʲiːrʲəɣ] = (act of) combing, carding, teazing cìreag [kʲiːrʲag] = small comb cìrean [kʲiːrʲan] = comb, crest, ridging cìreanach [kʲiːrʲanəx] = pertaining to or abounding in combs, crested
Manx (Gaelg)	kerey = comb, combing, groom, hackle, teasel; to comb, mop up, tease (wool) kere [kʲeːrʲ / kʲiːr] = cobbler’s wax, comb, wax kereen = comb, coxcomb, crest, pack, topknot kereyder = comber, waxer (of wool), teaser, hackler

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kes- (to comb, scratch) [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include verheddern (to entangle sth, to become entangled, to get stuck, confused) in German, hahtuva (fluff) in Finnish, kasti (mto dig, rake) in Lithuanian, česat (to comb) in Czech, кося (to mow, reap, cut) in Bulgaran, haar (hair) in Dutch, hår (hair) in Norwegian, Swedish and Danish, and hair English [source].

Proto-Celtic	*krīkʷā = trench, furrow, boundary
Old Irish (Goídelc)	crích [ˈkʲɾʲiːx] = boundary, border, furrow, territory, area críchnaigid = to complete, fulfil coicrích = border (region), neighbouring territory
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	crích, crich [kʲɾʲiːx] = boundary, limit (of territory), end, aim, purpose, confines, territory, district, land críchnaid = to delimit, bound, fix bounds to críchnaigecht = limits coicrích, coiccrich = border, march, neighbouring or foreign territory
Irish (Gaeilge)	críoch [cɾʲiːx] = limit, boundary, region, territory, end, completion, conclusion, fulfilment, settlement críochadóir = marker of boundaries críochadóireacht = demarcation, marking of boundaries críochaigh = to demarcate críochantacht = bounding, bordering críochnaigh = to finish, complete, accomplish críochnú = completion, accomplishment críochnúil = complete, thorough, neat, methodical
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	crìoch [krʲiəx] = border, frontier, boundary, end, close, finale, finish, limit(ation), goal, confines crìochach [krʲiəxəx] = finite crìochadair [krʲiəxədɪrʲ] = borderer crìochadaireachd [krʲiəxədɪrʲəxg] = bordering, demarcation, division crìochadh [krʲiəxəɣ] = ending, closing, finishing, terminating crìochaire [krʲiəxɪrʲə] = border guard/keeper
Manx (Gaelg)	creagh [krɨəx] = furrow, stack creeagh = border(line), boundary, termination creaghnaghey = to accomplish, complete, conclude creaghnee = to accomplish creaghney = to accomplish, completion creaghnit = complete(d)
Proto-Brythonic	*krib = (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	crip = comb, crest
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	crib = comb, wild teasel, crest cribo, cribaf, kribo = to comb, curry cribiad = combing, carding, scratch krybyn, cribin, kribyn = rake, grasping or miserly person, skinflint kribawc, kribawg, kribyoc, criboc, cribog = combed, comb-like, indented, ridged, steep crested
Welsh (Cymraeg)	crib [kriːb] = comb, wild teasel, crest, pride, self-conceit, honeycomb, bridge of a violin cribell = small comb, crest of a bird, ridge, ledge, summit cribin = rake, grasping or miserly person, skinflint cribo = to comb, curry (to groom), cope, climb, clamber, creep crib(i)og = combed, comb-like, indented, ridged, steep crested cribwr, cribydd = comber, ones who cards wool, carding-machine
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	crib, crîb = comb, ridge, crest, summit criba(s) = to comb criban = comb, crest, tuft, plume cribia = to card wool
Cornish (Kernewek)	krib = comb, reef, arête kribas = to comb kribek, kribys = furrowed kribel = teasel kriben = ridge kribya = to card wool
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	crip = comb
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	crib = comb cribar = to comb cribell = crest cribenn = crest, peak
Breton (Brezhoneg)	krib [ˈkriːp] = comb, crest, summit kribañ = to comb kribell = crest, toupee kribellañ = to provide with a crest, crested kribelleg = crested kribenn = crest, peak, comb, summit, chatter

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *krek- (post) [source].

Celtiadur

Exploring connections between Celtic languages

Category: Old Welsh (Kembraec)

You Yourself

Shining Bright

Confluent Ravines

Binding Fastenings

Thorny Brambles

Side by Side

Smoothly Slippery

What?

Tenacious Toughness

Crested Combs