Binding Fastenings

9th July 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for binding, fastening and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	rigo- = to bind komrigā = binding, bond
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cuimrech [ˈku.β̃ʲɾʲəx] = binding, bond, fastening, fetter, captivity
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cuimrech, cuiṁbrech, cuibrech = act of binding, fastening, fettering, imprisoning, captivity, bond, fetter, chain
Irish (Gaeilge)	cuibhreach = binding, fetter, trammel cuibhrigh = bind, fetter
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cuibhreach [kɯivrəx] = chain, trammel cuibhreachadh [kɯivrʲəxəɣ] = (act of) binding, fettering, restricting, restriction cuibhreachail [kɯivrʲəxal] = limiting, restrictive
Proto-Brythonic	*korrɨɣ = thong (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	corruui = thong, lace, leather strap, rein
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	karrei = thong, lace, leather strap, rein
Welsh (Cymraeg)	carrai [ˈkara / ˈkarɛ] = thong, lace, leather strap, rein, leash
Cornish (Kernewek)	kevren = bond, link, share kevrenna = to share kevrennek, kevrenoges = participant, stakeholder, participating
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	comreg = tie, bond, connection (?)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	corre-enn, qévre, qevre = tie, bond, connection
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kevre [keːvre] = tie, bond, connection, link, agreement, alliance kevread = bond, league kevreadenn = hook-up, connection, link kevreañ = to connect, to join forces kevreded = federation, association, alliance

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *(H)reyǵ- (to bind, reach), possibly via Latin corrigia (shoelace, tie, thong whip) [source]. Words from the same roots include correggia (leather strap or belt, thong) in Italian, courroie (strap, belt, band, strip) in French [source].

Proto-Celtic	gem-, gem-eno-, *gemelo- = shackle, chain
Old Irish (Goídelc)	gemel = chain, fetter gébend = bond, fetter, captivity
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	gemel, gemeal = fetter, chain, gyve gemlech, geimhlech = a fettered person, a prisoner, a hostage, fettered, captive gébend = bond, fetter, captivity
Irish (Gaeilge)	geimheal = fetter, shackle, chain geimhleach = fettered person, captive, prisoner; fettered, captive, held in bondage geimhligh = fetter, shackle, chain géibheann [ˈɟeːvʲən̪ˠ] = bond, fetter, bondage, captivity, strait, difficulty, distress, need géibheannach [ˈɟeːvʲən̪ˠəx] = person in bonds, person in fetters, captive géibheannas = bondage, sore distress
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	geamhal = fetter, shackle, gyve geimheal = fetter, shackle, gyve geimhleach [gʲevləx] = fetter, captive, slave gèibhinn = fetter
Manx (Gaelg)	geuley = manacle, chain, bond, shackle geulaghey = manacle, chain, shackle, bind in chains geuleydagh = bondman, chain
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	gebin = fetter, shackle
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	geuyn, gefyn, gevyn = fetter, shackle, gyve, manacle, chain geuynnedig = shackled, fettered gefynnu = to shackle, fetter, manacle gevynnauc = shackled, fettered
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gefyn = fetter, shackle, gyve, manacle, chain gefynedig = shackled, fettered gefynnaf, gefynnu = to shackle, fetter, manacle, couple, link gefynnog = shackled, fettered

Etymology: from from Proto-Indo-European *gem- (to press, grasp) [source]. Words from the same roots include gyve (shackle or fetter, especially for the leg; to shackle, to fetter, to chain) in English, жать (žatʹ – to press, squeeze, lift) in Russian, ožeti (to squeeze) in Slovenian, ždímat (to wring) in Czech, and γεμίζω (gemízo – to fill, stuff) in Greek [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	sibal = clasp, pin
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	sibal(l) = a clasp, buckle, pin
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	fual = fetter, gyve, shackle, bond
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	hual = fetter, gyve, shackle, bond hualu = to fetter, manacle, shackle, chain, hobble, restrict, restrain hualawc, hualoc, hualog, hualawg = fettered, shackled, trammelled, tethered
Welsh (Cymraeg)	hual = fetter, gyve, shackle, bond, hobble, restriction, restraint, check, trammel, hindrance, impediment hualaf, hualu = to fetter, manacle, shackle, chain, hobble, restrict, restrain hualedig = fettered or manacled, shackled, tethered hualog = fettered, shackled, trammelled, tethered
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	fual, fu, hual = fetter, shackle
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	hual = shackle hualaff = to hinder, impede, obstruct
Breton (Brezhoneg)	hual = shackle, leg irons, anti-theft device hualañ [hyˈɑːlã] = to shackle, put in irons, subjugate, subdue hualet = hindered dishualañ [di.syˈɑː.lã] = to emancipate, deliver, liberate, unshackle

Etymology: possibly from or related to Latin fibula (clasp, buckle, brooch) [source]. Words from the same roots include sivella (buckle) in Catalan, fibbia (buckle, clasp) in Italian, and hebilla (buckle, clasp) in Spanish [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Thorny Brambles

17th June 202617th June 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for bramble, briar, thorn and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	dristis, drissis = briar, bramble, thorn bush
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dris [ˈd̠ʲɾʲisʲ] = bramble, briar
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dris = bramble, briar, thorn bush drisech = thorny, brambly
Irish (Gaeilge)	dris [dʲɾʲɪʃ] = bramble, briar, a cantankerous, prickly person drischoill = bramble brake driseach = brambly, briary driseog = (small) bramble, a prickly, irritable person drisín = small bramble drisíneach = prickly, irritable, touchy
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dris [driʃ] = thorn, a thorny plant, small pin driseach [driʃəx] = prickly, thorny, brambly driseag [driʃag] = small thorn, small thorny plant driseil [driʃal] = prickly, thorny drisleach [driʃləx] = thorny thicket, briar patch, thicket of brambles
Manx (Gaelg)	dress = blackberry bush, briar, bramble dressag = small bramble bush dressagh = brambly, briary
Proto-Brythonic	*drɨs = dry
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	drissi = briars, brambles, thorn bushes
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	dyrys [ˈdərɨ̞s / ˈdərɪs] = wild, rough, uncultivated drissi, dris, dryssi, drysi = briars, brambles, thorn bushes dryssyant, drysiant = entanglement, perplexity, quandary
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dyrys [ˈdərɨ̞s / ˈdərɪs] = wild, rough, uncultivated, tangled with undergrowth, thorny, dense, matted, intricate, entangled drys(i) [ˈdrəsɪ / ˈdrəsi] = briars, brambles, thorn bushes, entanglement, intricacy drysiant = entanglement, perplexity, quandary drysïog = full of briars or brambles, thorny drysle, dyrysle = intricate place, maze, labyrinth, bramble-brake, thicket dryslyd, dyryslyd = perplexing, puzzling, embarrassing, tangled, intricate, puzzled, confused, bewildered, deranged
Old Cornish	dreis = brambles, briars
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	dreis, dreyn = brambles, briars
Cornish (Kernewek)	dreys = brambles dreysen = bramble dreysa = to tangle
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dres = brambles dresen = bramble
Breton (Brezhoneg)	drez [dreːs] = brambles drezenn = bramble drezad = brambles drezeg [ˈdreː.zɛk] = bramble patch, bramble thicket drezek = full of brambles drezid = bramble grove

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *der- (to split, separate, tear, crack, shatter) [source].

Side by Side

19th May 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for side, flank and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*toibos = side
Old Irish (Goídelc)	tóeb, táeb, toíb, taeb [ˈt̪oːi̯β / ˈt̪aːi̯β / ˈt̪oːi̯β] = side strong>lettáeb [ˈl̠ʲe.t̪aːi̯β] = side
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	taeb, tóib, tóeb, tuib = side, direction, part, region taebán, tóeban = little side, side, rafter
Irish (Gaeilge)	taobh [t̪ˠeːvˠ / t̪ˠiːvˠ] = side, border, edge, flank, aspect, direction, region, point of view, attitude, party, team, faction, cause, line of descent, reliance, dependence, recourse, resort taobhach = lateral, trusting, partial, biased taobhacht = trustfulness, confidence, tendentiousness, partiality taobhagán = hypotenuse taobhaí = companion, adherent, supporter taobhaigh = to draw near, approach, side with, support, rely on, trust, entrust to, urge, enjoin taobhaíocht = support taobhaitheoir = supporter, sympathizer aontaobhach = unilateral déthaobhach = bilateral, double-sided comhthaobhach = collateral leataobh = one side (of two), lay-by leataobhach = one-sided, lopsided, tilted, partial, biased do leataobh, i leataobh = aside
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	taobh [tɯːv] = side, flank, angle, aspect, facet, direction, way, point of view, liking, partiality, coast taobh a-muigh = outside, exterior taobh a-staigh = inside, interior aon-taobhach = one-sided, unilateral dà-thaobhach = double-sided, duplex, bilateral co-thaobhach [kɔ hɯːvəx] = aligning, collateral ri taobh = beside, by the side of, by, next to
Manx (Gaelg)	çheu [tʃeu] = side, beam, standpoint, page çheumooie = outside, without, outboard, exterior çheusthie = inside, within, indoor, interior, inland, inner un-çheuagh = unilateral daa-heuagh = bilateral co’heuagh = collateral
Proto-Brythonic	*tʉβ = side
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	tu = side
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	tu = side tú há, tu a, tua, tv ac = towards, facing tu dalen, tvdalen = page
Welsh (Cymraeg)	tu [tɨː / tiː] = side, edge, flank, direction, area, district, region, place, point of view tu allan / tu fas = outside, exterior tu mewn = inside tu ôl = behind tua [tɨː.a / tiː.a] = towards, facing, around, in relation to, about, approximately tuaf, tuo = to tend, incline, side, lean towards, direct tudalen [tɨ̞ˈdalɛn / tɪˈdaːlɛn] = page (one side of a leaf of a book)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	tu = side, part, region tuhe, tyha = towards
Cornish (Kernewek)	tu [tyː / tiˑʊ] = side, direction, bearing tu a-ves = exterior tuedh = tendency, trend tuedha (troha / war-tu ha) = to tend (towards) tuedhder = orientation heptu [hɛpˈtyː / həpˈtiˑʊ] = neutral, nonaligned untu [ˈʏnty / ˈɪntɪʊ] = unilateral, one-sided war-tu = towards
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	tu = side tu-hont, tuhont = over there
Breton (Brezhoneg)	tu [tyː] = side, direction tu-hont = over there tuad = side, direction tuadur = position, location, orientation

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *(s)teygʷ- (flank, side). Words from the same PIE root possibly include стегно [steːɡno] (thigh) in Serbian, and stehno (thigh) in Czech [source].

Smoothly Slippery

14th January 202614th January 2026 By Simon

Words for slippery, smooth and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	slimnos, slimonos = smooth, slippery
Old Irish (Goídelc)	slemon = slippery, smooth, polished, courteous slemnaigid = smooth, polish
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	slemon, slemain = smooth, polished, sleek, slippery, smooth, calm, temperate, gentle, affable, courteous slemnán = smoothness, flattery, cajoling talk sleimne, slemnae = smoothness, slipperiness, gentleness slemnaigid = to make smooth, polish, lubricate, soften, slip, slide
Irish (Gaeilge)	sleamhain [ˈʃlʲawənʲ / ˈʃl̠ʲãuwənʲ] = smooth, slippery, sleek, slippery, sly sleamhaine = smoothness, sleekness, slipperiness sleamhnaigh = to slide, to slip, to go unnoticed, to smooth sleamhnán = slide, runner, bob (of sledge), chute, shoot, slippery sleamhnánach = smooth, slippery, sly sleamhnánaí = slippery / sly person sleamhnú = to slide, slip, slither
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sleamhainn [ʃl̪ʲɛ̃ũ.ɪn̪ʲ] = slippery, smooth strong>sleamhaineag [ʃl̪ʲãũ.ɪn̪ʲag] = slide
Manx (Gaelg)	shliawin, sliawin, shliawn [ʃlʲãunʲ] = slippery, smooth, sly, sleek, soapy, insidious, lubricated, greasy shliawinaghey = to become slippery shliawney = slippery shliawinane = chute, slide, glide, runner, slipway, shoot shliawinid = smoothness, slipperiness, slyness, insidiousness
Proto-Brythonic	*llɨβ̃n = coal (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	linīnt = to make smooth (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llywin, llyfyn, llyfnet, llyvn = smooth, level, plain, flat, polished, slippery llyfnu, Llyfny = to harrow, to make smooth, to pat, to polish
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llyfn [ɬɨ̞vn / ɬɪvn] = smooth, level, plain, flat, polished, slippery llyfnaf, llyfnu = to harrow, to make smooth, to pat, to polish llyfndra = smoothness, levelness, evenness, sleekness, ease, fluency llyfnedig = smoothed, polished
Middle Cornish (Cernewec . Kernuak)	leven = smooth, even, level
Cornish (Kernewek)	leven = even, level, plain, smooth levena = to smooth levender = evenness levenhe = to level levenheans = terracing
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	limn = smooth (?)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dileffn = smooth, plain, polished
Breton (Brezhoneg)	levn [ˈlẽwn] = smooth, plain, polished levnaat = smooth, smoothing levnadur = polishing, smoothing levnañ [ˈlẽw.nːã] = to slip levnenn = polished

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *(s)ley- (slime, slimy, sticky, slippery). Words from the same roots possibly include slime in English, slijm (slime, mucus) in Dutch, Schleim (mucus, slime) in German, limon (silt) in French and limo (mud, slime, slit) in Spanish [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Geriafurch, TermOfis

What?

12th November 202512th November 2025 By Simon

Words for what? which? who? where? and related things in Celtic languages.

What?

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷid? = what?
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cid? = what? cote, cate, catte [ˈko.d̠ʲe] = of what sort is …? what is …?
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cote, coteeet, codde, cate, cati, cáte = what (is)?
Irish (Gaeilge)	cad? [kad̪ˠ] = what? where? (in Munster) cad é? [kəd̪ˠˈeː] = what? (in Connacht & Ulster) cad é mar (atá tú)? = how (are you)? (in Ulster) céard? [ceːɾˠd̪ˠ] = what? (in Connacht) goidé? [ɡəˈtʲeː] = what? (in Connacht & Ulster) cad chuige? [kɑt̪ˠ ˈxɪɟɪ / kəˈt̪ˠiɟə] = why? (in Mayo,& Ulster) cad ina thaobh? [ˌkɑn̪ˠəˈheːvˠ] = why? (in Munster)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ciod? [kʲid] = what? ciod air bith = whichever, whatever ciod e? = what? ciod thuige? [kʲid hugʲə] = why? dè? [dʲeː] = what? who? dè man? dè mar? [deː man / dʲeː mar] = how?
Manx (Gaelg)	cre? = what? cre fa? = why? cre wooad? = how much? quoid? = how many? how much?
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	pa? = what? which?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pa? py? = what? which? paham? pam? = why? reason, cause, question
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pa? [paː] = what? which? paham? pam? = why? reason, cause, question pa bryd? = when? at what time? pa un? p’un? = who(m)? which (one)?
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pe? pa? py? = what? which? where? pa le? = where place? where? pahan = what perag? prâg? = for what? wherefore? why? pattel? patla? fattel? fatla? = how? by what means? pe? pa? py? =
Cornish (Kernewek)	py? pe? = what? which? py lies? = how many? pyth? = what?, that which ple? = where? prag? = why? what for? fatla? = how?
Old Breton	pe? = what?
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	pe? pé? = what? peguement? pe quement? = how much? how many? pe en lech? = where? penaus? penos? = how? perac? pe-rac? = why? petra? = who? what?
Breton (Brezhoneg)	pe? [peː] = which one? pegeit? [peˈɡɛjt] = how long? how far? pegement? [pe.ˈɡẽ.mːɛnt] = how much? how many? pegoulz? [pe.ˈɡuls] = when? pehini? [peˈ(h)ĩːni] = which one? pelec’h? [peˈlɛːx] = where? penaos? [pẽ.ˈnɔːs] = how? perak? [pe.ˈrɑːk] = why? peseurt? [peˈsøʁt] = what? what kind? petra? [ˈpe.tʁa] = who? what?

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kʷid (what? which?) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include çë (what?) in Albanian, kas (that, which, who) in Latvian, что (što – that, what, which) in Russian, che (what, which) in Italian, ¿qué? (what? which?) in Spainish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*kʷei? = who?
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cía = what? where? who? how? if, although cía airet? = how long? cía airm? cairm? airm? = where? cía chruth? = how? cía méit? = how many? how much?
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cía? ce? ci? = who? what? how? where?
Irish (Gaeilge)	cá? = what? how? where? cá hait? = (at) what place? where? cá huair? = at what hour? when? cá fhad? = how long? cá mhéad? = how much? how much? cé? = who? cén? = what? which?
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cò? [koː] = who(m)? where? cò idir = whoever cò ann? = wherein? cò as? [ko as] = where from?
Manx (Gaelg)	quoi? [kwəi] = who? whom? which? whichever, who? quoi erbee = who(so)ever, whom(so)ever quoi jeu? = which one? quoid? c’wooad? = how many? how much?
Proto-Brythonic	*puɨ? = who?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pwy? = who(m)? what? pwy bynnac, pwybynnag = whoever
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pwy? [puːɨ̯ / pʊi̯] = who(m)? what? pwy bynnag = whoever
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pew? pyw? p(y)u? piwa? = who? pywpenag, piwha bennac, piwa bennac, pyu penagh = who(s)ever
Cornish (Kernewek)	piw? [piˑʊ] = who? piw penag, piw pynag = whoever piw? = who?
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	piu? = who?
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	piu? piou? = who? piupennac, piu pennac, piou bennac = whoever
Breton (Brezhoneg)	piv? [piw] = who? piv bennak = whoever pivelezh = identity

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kʷís (who? what? which, that) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include ca (than, as) in Romanian, hve (how, like, as) in Icelandic, how and when in English, and hoe (how) in Dutch [source].

Tenacious Toughness

5th November 2025 By Simon

Words for tough, tenacious, stiff and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*reginis = hard, stiff, tough
Old Irish (Goídelc)	rigin = hard, tough, slow
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	rigin = tough, hard, unyielding, slow, dilatory, prolix, slow-moving, tranquil rigne = tenacity, toughness, slowness, prolixity, sluggishness
Irish (Gaeilge)	righin [ɾˠiːnʲ] = tough, tenacious, unyielding, stubborn, slow, deliberate, lingering, tardy, vicous, stringy, ropy righne = toughness righneáil = (act of) lingering, loitering, dawdling righneálach = lingering, loitering, dawdling righneálaí = lingerer, loiterer, dawdler, stubborn person righneas = toughness, tenacity, stubborness, slowness, tardiness, viscosity righnigh = to toughen, persevere, linger, delay, become viscid
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	righinn [r̪ʲi.ɪn̪ʲ] = stiff, tough, sticky, adhesive righinn-bheulach = tight-lipped rìghneas [r̪ʲiːnəs] = stiffness, tenacity
Manx (Gaelg)	reen = hard, rigid, stiff, unyielding, thick-skinned reenagh = stringy, toughish, tight reenaghey = stiffen, toughen(ing) reeneyder = stiffener, toughener, tonic reenid = rigidity, starkness, toughness
Proto-Brythonic	*rrėɣɨn = (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	Regin = tribal name
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	rein, rain, rhain = stiff (of corpse), stone-dead, rigid, stiffened
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhain [r̥ai̯n] = stiff (of corpse), stone-dead, rigid, stiffened

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *regeti (to stretch, to straighten), from Proto-Indo-European *h₃réǵeti (to be straightening, from *h₃réǵ- (to straighten, to righten) [source].

Words from the same roots include rail, rank, realm, regime, regular and rule in English, Regel (rule) in German, rang (row, line, position) in French, rheng (rank, row) in Welsh, reja (grate, grating, grille) in Spanish, rank [source].

Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	serth = steep, sloping, precipitous, high syrthaỽ, syrthav = to fall, tumble, prostrate oneself
Welsh (Cymraeg)	serth = steep, sloping, precipitous, high, straight, vertical, upright, discourteous, uncivil, insulting, curt, surly, unseemly, uncouth serthaf, serthu = to become steep, to revile, abuse, malign serthaidd = steep, precipitous, discourteous serthrwydd = steepness, obscenity, ribaldry syrth(i)af, syrth(i)o [ˈsərθjɔ] = to fall, tumble, prostrate oneself
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	serth = stiff, hard
Cornish (Kernewek)	serth = abrupt, erect, stiff, upright, vertical serthals = precipice serthi = to rise up sharply serthter = abruptness, inflexibility, rigidity, rigour, steepness, stiffness, verticality
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	serz = abrupt, tightly, firmly
Breton (Brezhoneg)	serzh [ˈsɛrs] = steep, robust, stable serzhañ = to tackle, to go back up serzhded = escarpment, cliff serzhder = perpendicularity serzhdenn = ascent, solid, robust

Etymology: unknown, possibly related to start in English, styrte (to rush, fall down, overthrow, jump) in Dutch, and stürzen (to fall down, drop, tumble) in German [source].

Proto-Celtic	razgo / ringo- = torture (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	riag = torture
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ríag = torture
Irish (Gaeilge)	riagh = rack, torture, execute (literary)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	rag [r̪ˠag] = inflexible, rigid, stiff, pig-headed, stubborn, stark, tense ragach [r̪ˠagəx] = stiff, tough ragadh [r̪ˠagəɣ] = (act of) stiffening, making rigid, benumbing ragaireachd [r̪ˠagɪrʲəxg] = extortion
Manx (Gaelg)	rag = stiff
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reut [røːt] = stiff, rigid, sharp, stocky reutaat = to stiffen reutadur = stiffening, rigidification reutaer = stiffener reuted = rigidity

Etymology (Breton): from Old French roide (stiff, straight, steep, abrupt), from Latin rigidus (stiff, rigid, hard, stern), from rigeō (to be stiff, stiffen) from Proto-Italic *rigēō, from Proto-Indo-European *Hreyǵ- (to stretch out, reach, bind) [source]. The Goidelic words come from the same PIE roots, via Proto-Celtic *rigo- (to stretch) [source].

Words from the same roots include raide (stiff, straight, steep, abrupt) in French, rigid in English, recio (tough, robust, strong) in Spanish and rijo (hard, tough, stiff, wiry) in Portuguese [source].

Crested Combs

24th September 2025 By Simon

Words for comb, crest furrow and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kīsrā = comb
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cír [ˈkʲiːɾ] = comb, rake, crest, tip
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cír, cir = comb, rake, crest, tip círach = crested helmet círaid = to comb, to smooth out círán, círín = crest círmaire, cirmure = comber or fuller of cloth, comb maker
Irish (Gaeilge)	cíor [ciːɾˠ / ciəɾˠ] = comb, crest, cud; to comb, examine minutely, search cíorach = toothed cíoradh = combing, discussion, examination, hair-pulling, quarrelling cíoradóir = comber cíorán, círín = crest cíorláil = combing, searching, rough handling; to comb, search, rummage cíorlálaí = searcher, rummager, rough customer cíormhaire = (wool) comber, fuller, comb maker
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cìr [kʲiːrʲ] = comb, cud, honeycomb cìreadh [kʲiːrʲəɣ] = (act of) combing, carding, teazing cìreag [kʲiːrʲag] = small comb cìrean [kʲiːrʲan] = comb, crest, ridging cìreanach [kʲiːrʲanəx] = pertaining to or abounding in combs, crested
Manx (Gaelg)	kerey = comb, combing, groom, hackle, teasel; to comb, mop up, tease (wool) kere [kʲeːrʲ / kʲiːr] = cobbler’s wax, comb, wax kereen = comb, coxcomb, crest, pack, topknot kereyder = comber, waxer (of wool), teaser, hackler

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kes- (to comb, scratch) [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include verheddern (to entangle sth, to become entangled, to get stuck, confused) in German, hahtuva (fluff) in Finnish, kasti (mto dig, rake) in Lithuanian, česat (to comb) in Czech, кося (to mow, reap, cut) in Bulgaran, haar (hair) in Dutch, hår (hair) in Norwegian, Swedish and Danish, and hair English [source].

Proto-Celtic	*krīkʷā = trench, furrow, boundary
Old Irish (Goídelc)	crích [ˈkʲɾʲiːx] = boundary, border, furrow, territory, area críchnaigid = to complete, fulfil coicrích = border (region), neighbouring territory
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	crích, crich [kʲɾʲiːx] = boundary, limit (of territory), end, aim, purpose, confines, territory, district, land críchnaid = to delimit, bound, fix bounds to críchnaigecht = limits coicrích, coiccrich = border, march, neighbouring or foreign territory
Irish (Gaeilge)	críoch [cɾʲiːx] = limit, boundary, region, territory, end, completion, conclusion, fulfilment, settlement críochadóir = marker of boundaries críochadóireacht = demarcation, marking of boundaries críochaigh = to demarcate críochantacht = bounding, bordering críochnaigh = to finish, complete, accomplish críochnú = completion, accomplishment críochnúil = complete, thorough, neat, methodical
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	crìoch [krʲiəx] = border, frontier, boundary, end, close, finale, finish, limit(ation), goal, confines crìochach [krʲiəxəx] = finite crìochadair [krʲiəxədɪrʲ] = borderer crìochadaireachd [krʲiəxədɪrʲəxg] = bordering, demarcation, division crìochadh [krʲiəxəɣ] = ending, closing, finishing, terminating crìochaire [krʲiəxɪrʲə] = border guard/keeper
Manx (Gaelg)	creagh [krɨəx] = furrow, stack creeagh = border(line), boundary, termination creaghnaghey = to accomplish, complete, conclude creaghnee = to accomplish creaghney = to accomplish, completion creaghnit = complete(d)
Proto-Brythonic	*krib = (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	crip = comb, crest
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	crib = comb, wild teasel, crest cribo, cribaf, kribo = to comb, curry cribiad = combing, carding, scratch krybyn, cribin, kribyn = rake, grasping or miserly person, skinflint kribawc, kribawg, kribyoc, criboc, cribog = combed, comb-like, indented, ridged, steep crested
Welsh (Cymraeg)	crib [kriːb] = comb, wild teasel, crest, pride, self-conceit, honeycomb, bridge of a violin cribell = small comb, crest of a bird, ridge, ledge, summit cribin = rake, grasping or miserly person, skinflint cribo = to comb, curry (to groom), cope, climb, clamber, creep crib(i)og = combed, comb-like, indented, ridged, steep crested cribwr, cribydd = comber, ones who cards wool, carding-machine
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	crib, crîb = comb, ridge, crest, summit criba(s) = to comb criban = comb, crest, tuft, plume cribia = to card wool
Cornish (Kernewek)	krib = comb, reef, arête kribas = to comb kribek, kribys = furrowed kribel = teasel kriben = ridge kribya = to card wool
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	crip = comb
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	crib = comb cribar = to comb cribell = crest cribenn = crest, peak
Breton (Brezhoneg)	krib [ˈkriːp] = comb, crest, summit kribañ = to comb kribell = crest, toupee kribellañ = to provide with a crest, crested kribelleg = crested kribenn = crest, peak, comb, summit, chatter

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *krek- (post) [source].

Winnowing Wheat

4th September 2025 By Simon

Words for wheat, winnow and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	nixtos = (something) winnowed, wheat uɸo-nixtos = (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	necht = (?) cruithnecht* = wheat
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cruithnecht, cruithneachd = wheat cruithnechtach, cruithneachtach = abounding in wheat cruithnechtdae = relating to wheat
Irish (Gaeilge)	cruithneacht [ˈkɾˠɪ(h)nʲəxt̪ˠ] = wheat
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cruithneachd [krɯn̪ʲəxg] = wheat, best of somethign cruithneachd-choitcheann = common / bread wheat (triticum aestivum) cruithneachd-Innseanach = maize, corn (zea mays) cruithneachd nan gaisgeach = the greatest of heroes
Manx (Gaelg)	curnagh(t) = wheat
Proto-Brythonic	niθ = (something) winnowed, wheat gwöniθ = wheat *niθjɨd = to winnow
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	gueinth = wheat
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	guenith, gwenith, gỽenith = wheat gwenithaidd = excellent, fine, of the purest, wheaten gwenythdyr, gwenithdir = land under wheat, land suitable for wheat-growing gwenithuein, gwenithfaen = granite gwenith gwrwf, gwenithgwrw = wheat-ale nithiau, nithiaw, nithio = to winnow, sift nithydd, nithiwr = winnower
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gwenith [ˈɡwɛnɪθ / ˈɡweːnɪθ] = wheat, good people, excellence, purity, fine man or woman, one of the best, a real good sort gwenithaidd = excellent, fine, of the purest, wheaten gwenithlyd, gwenithog = abounding in wheat gwenithol = wheaten, fine, of the highest quality, pure nithio = to winnow, sift nithiedig = winnowed, sifted nithiol = winnowing, sifting nithiwr, nithydd = winnower, winnowing machine
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	gwaneth = wheat nothlen = a winnowing sheet
Cornish (Kernewek)	gwaneth [ˈɡwanɛθ] = wheat gwanethek = wheat field gwanethen = (ear of) wheat gwanettir = wheat land notha, nothya = to winnow
Middle Breton	guiniz = birch niza = to winnow
Breton (Brezhoneg)	gwinizh [ˈɡɥĩːnis] = wheat gwinizheg [ɡwĩ.ˈniː.zɛk] = wheat field gwinizhenn = stalk of wheat gwinizhus = abundant in wheat nizh, nizhadeg, nizherezh = winnowing nizhañ = to winnow nizher = winnower

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *nik-tó-s, from *neyk- (to winnow) & *-tós (creates verbal adjectives from verb stems) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include λίκνο (líkno – cradle) and λιχνίζω (likhnízō – to thresh) in Greek, niekoti (trifle) in Latvian, and niekāt (nothing) in Lithuanian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	tuirenn = wheat
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	tuirenn, tuirinn = wheat
Irish (Gaeilge)	tuireann = (lit.) wheat, faithful following, band, company
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	tuireann [tɯrʲən̪ˠ] = wheat (genus triticum)

Etymology: unknown, possibly related to tuireann (a spark of fire from an anvil) [source]

Each & Every

24th July 2025 By Simon

Words for each, every, all and related things in Celtic languages.

Each & Every

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷākʷos = everyone, everybody, each, every
Transalpine Gaulish	papos = each, every (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cách, cach [kax] = each, every, all, everyone cach la céin = one at a time cechtar = both, each
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cach, cech [kax / kex] = each, every, all, cách, cach = the one, each, everyone, all, the rest cechtar = each (of), both (of), either (of)
Irish (Gaeilge)	gach [ɡax / ɡɑx] = every, each, everything gach rud = everything gach aon, gach uile = every gach aon duine = each, every, person, everybody gach bliain, gach uile bhliain = every year ceachtar [ˈcaxt̪ˠəɾˠ] = either, one or other of two
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	gach [gax] = every, each, all, per gach a chèile = each other gach bliadhna = every year, annually gach dùrachd = best regards, yours sincerely gach pearsa = per capita gach ràith = every season, seasonally, every quarter, quarterly gach rud = everything gach uile [gax ulə] = every, each
Manx (Gaelg)	dagh [dax] = each, every, both, singular gagh = each, every dagh blein, gagh blein = annually, yearly dagh laa, gagh laa = daily, every day gagh-laa = ordinary dagh ooilley, dagh un = every dagh unnane = every one dagh ynnyd, dagh ooilley ard, dagh ooilley raad = everywhere dagh ooilley nhee = everything dagh ooilley phersoon = everybody dagh ooilley raad = everywhere cagh = all, everyone, everybody cagh elley = everyone else, rest cagh yt cheilley = reciprocal
Proto-Brythonic	pọb, pāpos = every, each (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	paup = every, each
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pop, pob = every, each, all, all manner of, every type of pobed = entirety pobua, pop wa, pob va = everywhere, every place pob uann, popmann, pop mann = everywhere, every place, every part pob un, pob vn, pobun everyone, everybody, each one, every (single) one, all
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pob [poːb] = every, each, all, all manner of, every type of pob dim, popeth = everything pobfa, pob fa = everywhere, every place pob lle poblle = every place, everywhere poblleath, pobmanrwydd = ubiquity, omnipresence pobman, pob man = everywhere, every place, every part pobun, pob un everyone, everybody, each one, every (single) one, all
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pép, péb = every one pob, póp, pôb, pôp, pûb, pûp = every, all pop, pób = every, each pepynag, pepenag = whatsoever, whatever
Cornish (Kernewek)	peub, pob = all, everybody, everyone pub = each, every pub eur = always pub huni = everybody, everyone pub le = everywhere pub pres, pub prys, pub termyn = always, all the time pub tra, puptra = everything pub dedhyek, pubdedhyek = daily pubonan, pubonen = everybody
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	pop = each, every
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	pep = each, every pep vnan = each and every, everybody, everyone
Breton (Brezhoneg)	pep [pep] = each, every a bep eil = alternatively in turns bemdez [ˈbɛmde(s)] = every day bemnoz [ˈbɛmnos] = every night pep hini, pep unan = each and every, everybody, everyone (a) pep lec’h = everywhere pep tro = every time

Etymology: either from Proto-Indo-European *kʷo-h₃kʷ-os, from *kʷós (which, what) and *h₃kʷ-os (to see), or from PIE *kʷeh₂-kʷos [Source]. Words from the same roots possibly include how in English, hoe (how) in Dutch, hve (how, like as) in Icelandic, con (with, together) in Italian, com (with, against, together) in Portuguese, cu in Romanian, and cual (like, as, in the manner of) in Spanish [Source].
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Proto-Celtic	*olyos = all
Gaulish	ollos = everything, everyone (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	(h)uile, (h)ule [(h)ˈulʲe] = all, whole
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	uile [ˈulʲə] = all, every, the whole, everyone
Irish (Gaeilge)	uile [ˈɪlʲə / ˈɛlʲə] = all, every, whole, wholly, entirely uilechoiteann = general, universal uilechumhachtach = omnipotent, almighty uilefheasach = omniscient uilefhóinteach = all-purpose uileghabhálach = comprehensive, compendious, exhaustive uileláithreach = omnipresent, ubiquitous uiliteach = omnivorous
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	uile [ulə] = all, every, entire, total uil-fhiosrach = all-knowing, omniscient uile-amasach [ɯl aməsəx] = all-purpose uile-bhiast = monster uile-chinnteachd = surety, certainty uile-choitcheann [ulə xɔhdʲçən̪ˠ] = universal uileas [uləs] = all, every
Manx (Gaelg)	ooilley [ulʲə / ulʲu] = all, whole, entire, everyone, everybody ooilley cooidjagh all together ooilley kiart = all right, alright, OK ooilley dy lieragh = altogether ooilley mygeart = all around, everywhere, round about, rampant ooilley-niartal = almighty ooilley smaghtagh = totalitarian
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	hol = all, the whole, everything, everyone
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	oll, holl = all, the whole, everything, everyone, holla()l hollaul, hollawl, hollaỽl = whole, complete, entire holl gyuoethaỽc, hollgyuoethauc, hollgyuoethawc = almighty, omnipotent, all-powerful
Welsh (Cymraeg)	holl, oll [hoːɬ] = all, the whole, everything, everyone, entire, complete, total, completely, entirely oll yn oll = all in all (h)ollfydol = cosmic, universal, global (h)ollgyfoethog = almighty, omnipotent, all-powerful (h)ollol = whole, complete, entire (h)olloldeb, hollolrwydd = universality, generality (h)ollwybodol = omniscient, all-knowing, know-alls (h)ollysydd = omnivore
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	oll, ol = all, every olgallusec, olgalluster = almighty
Cornish (Kernewek)	oll = all, every, entirely, everything oll termyn = enduring, etermal, everlasting olldalghus = comprehensive, global ollgallos = omnipotence ollgallosek, ollgallojek = almighty ollgemmyn, ollgebmyn = general ollgompassus = holistic ollvys, ollves = universe ollvysel, ollvesel = global, universal
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	oll = everything, everyone
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	holl, hol, oll = everything, everyone
Breton (Brezhoneg)	holl [ɔl] = everything, everyone, completely, totally holl-razh = completely hollad = total hollat = global, total hollbad = perpetual, permanent hollegezh = generality hollegour [ɔˈleːɡur] = generalist hollek [ˈɔlːek] = general, uncountable hollved [ˈɔlvet] = universe

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂olyos, from *h₂el- (beyond, other) [source]. Words from the same roots include altro (other, another, more, further) in Italian, autre (another) in French, otro (other, another) in Spanish, allur (all, everybody) in Icelandic, al (all, any) in Danish, and all and alter(native) in English [source]

Who?

11th July 2025 By Simon

Words for who and related things in Celtic languages.

Who?

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷei = who
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cía, ce, ci, cia = who? what? where? how? although, if cía airet? = how long? cía airm? = where? cía chruth? = how? cía méit? = how many? how much?
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cía, cia, cá = who? what? how? where? cia airm? = what place? where? cia eret? cia airet? = how long?
Irish (Gaeilge)	cé? [keː] = who? whom? cén? [ceːnˠ] = what? which? cén áit? = where? at what place? cén chaoi? = how? in what whay? cén dóigh? = how? in what way? cén fáth? = why? for what reason? cén uair? = when? at what time? cér(b)? = who is? cér(bh)? = who was?
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cò [koː] = who(m)? where? ge be cò = whoever, whosoever cia? [kʲa] = how? what? which? who? cia mheud? [kʲaˈviəd] = how many? cia ás? [kʲaˈas] = whence? where from? cia minig? = how often? cia fhada? [kʲaˈadə] = how long? cia airson? = why?
Manx (Gaelg)	quoi [kwəi] = who? whom? which, whichever, who quoi erbee = who(so)ever, whom(so)ever quoi s’lesh = whose quoi jeu? = which one?
Proto-Brythonic	*puɨ = who (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	pui = what
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pwy, puy = who(m), whose, what, which, how pwy … pynac = whichever, whatever
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pwy [puːɨ̯ / pʊi̯] = who(m), whose, what, which, how pwy bynnag = who(so)ever, whichever, what(so)ever pwy … bynnag = whichever, whatever pwyma, pwyna = what-d’you-call-him/her
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pyw, pu = who, whom, which pywpenag, pwy-penag, piwha bennac = whosoever
Cornish (Kernewek)	piw [piˑʊ] = who piw penag / pynag [piˑʊ] = whoever
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	piu = who
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	piu = who
Breton (Brezhoneg)	piv [ˈpiw] = who piv bennak = whoever piv din-me = thing, thingamajig, whatstheirface (a person whose name is unknown)

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kʷís (who, what, which, that) [source]. Words from the same root include how, whether and status quo in English, hoe (how) in Dutch, hver (every, each, everyone) in Danish, qui (who, whom, which, that) in French, chi (who, whom, whoever) in Italian, com (with, against, alongside, together) in Portuguese, and który (what, which, that, who) in Polish [source].

Celtiadur

Exploring connections between Celtic languages

Category: Old Welsh (Kembraec)

Binding Fastenings

Thorny Brambles

Side by Side

Smoothly Slippery

What?

Tenacious Toughness

Crested Combs

Winnowing Wheat

Each & Every

Who?