Spring Fountains

21st May 2025 By Simon

Words for spring, fountain, well and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with an * are reconstructions.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	topur, topar [ˈto.bər] = source, well, spring tipra = fountain, spring, well
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	topar, tobar, sopar = well, spring, baptismal font, source tipra, tiprait = fountain, spring, well, source
Irish (Gaeilge)	tobar [ˈt̪ˠɔbˠəɾˠ / ˈt̪ˠʌbˠəɾˠ] = well, fountain, spring, source
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	tobar [tobər] = well, spring, source tobar na h-òige = the fountain of youth tobar-mhiann = wishing well tobar naomh = holy well tobar-sràide = hydrant
Manx (Gaelg)	tubbyr = font, fountain, laver tubbyr niaghan = washtub tubbyr oonlee = bathtub

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *ber- (to carry, bear), from Proto-Indo-European *bʰéreti (to be carrying), *bʰer- (to bear, carry) [source].

Proto-Brythonic	*funtọn = spring, well, fountain
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	finnaun, fynnaun = spring, well, fountain
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ffynnawn, ffynnon = spring, well, fountain ffynnonell, ffynhonnel = source, spring, fount, origin, source fynhonic = small spring, source, issue fynonvs, ffynnhonvs, fynhonus = springing, welling, bubbling, gushing
Welsh (Cymraeg)	ffynnon [ˈfənɔn] = spring, well, fountain, source, origin, issue, gland ffynonellu = to spring, originate ffynhonni, ffynhonna = to well, spring, gush, visit a medicinal spring ffynhonnell = source, spring, fount, origin, (historical or literary) source ffynhonnol = original ffynhonnus = springing, welling, bubbling, gushing
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	fenten, funten = well, fountain
Cornish (Kernewek)	fenten = fountain, well, spring
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	funton = fountain, spring, font
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	feunten = fountain, spring, font
Breton (Brezhoneg)	feunteun [ˈfœ̃ntœ̃n] = fountain, spring, font feunteunier = font maker

Etymology: from Late Latin fontāna (spring, source, fountain), from Latin fons (spring, well, fountain, font, origin, source), from Proto-Italic *fontis (spring, well), from *θontis, possibly from Proto-Indo-European *dʰónh₂-ti-s, from *dʰenh₂- (to flow) [source]. Words from the same roots include font (a receptacle in a church for holy water, especially one used in baptism) in English, fonte (source, spring) in Italian, and fuente (spring, fountain, source, bowl) in Spanish [source].

Welsh (Cymraeg)	(y)stifflog [əsˈtɪflɔɡ] = cuttlefish, squid ystiff(i)o = to scour, spurt, jet
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	stifac = cuttlefish
Cornish (Kernewek)	stifek = squid stifella = to spray stifjyn = jet engine stiflinder = jet lag stifliv = jet stream stifya = to spray
Breton (Brezhoneg)	stivell [sti:vɛl] = fountain, gushing spring, water jet, wash house stivelleg = squid stivellat = to spring forth (by gushing out), to stick out one’s head

Etymology (Breton): from stiv (spring, source, wash house), perhaps from Latin *stuba, from Proto-Germanic *stubō (room, heated room, living room), which is also the root of the English word stove [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Geriafurch, TermOfis

Granular Grains

30th April 2025 By Simon

Words for grain, corn and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*grānom = grain
Old Irish (Goídelc)	grán [ɡraːn] = grain gráinne = grain, seed
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	grán, gran = level surface, grain gráinne, grainne = a grain, a seed
Irish (Gaeilge)	grán [ɡɾˠɑːnˠ / ɡɾˠaːnˠ] = grain, ball, shot, pellet gráinne [ˈɡɾˠɑːn̠ʲə] = grain, (hard) particle, pinch (small quantity) gránach = cereal gránaigh = to granulate, scratch, scrape, graze gránlach = grain, grit, shot, pellets, granulated, ground, matter gránú = granulation gránúll = pomegranate
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	gràn [graːn] = grain (cereal, wood), shot (of lead) gràinne [graː̪nʲə] = small grain, speck, small pellet, small quantity grànach [graːnəx] = grained, granular grànlach = corn, grain, cereal gràinneach [graːn̪ʲəx] = grained, granulous, granular, gritty, granulated gràinneanach [graːn̪ˠənəx] = pertaining to grains, grainy, granular
Manx (Gaelg)	grine = grain, corn, grapeshot, pellet, foresight grinaghey = grain grineagh = cereal, grained, granular grineeghey = to granulate, powder, granulation grinneegh = grained, grainy, granular, granulated, granulous, gritty
Proto-Brythonic	*grọn [ˈlɔːr] = grain
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	graun, graỽnn, grawn = grain grawnwin, grawn-wîn = grapes, wine made from the juice of grapes gronyn, gronnyne, gronun = a single grain or pip
Welsh (Cymraeg)	grawn [ɡrau̯n] = grain, corn, cereal, seed, grapes, berries, fruit, roe, spawn (of fish), shot, grape-shot, load (of a gun) grawnafal = pomegranate grawndy, grawnfa = barn, granary grawnddwyn = grain-bearing, graniferous, bearing grapes or berries grawnen = grape grawnfwyd = cereal, grain-food grawnffrwyth = grapefruit grawnwin = grapes, wine made from the juice of grapes grawnwydd = vines gronyn = a single grain or pip
Old Cornish	gronen = grain
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	gronen = grain
Cornish (Kernewek)	greun(en) [ɡɹøːn] = grain greunaval = pomegranate greunek, greunvos = cereal greunhe = to form grain greunji, greunva = granary, grange greunvosow = barley, cereals, corn, wheat greunya = to form grain in the ear
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	garan, greun(enn), grun = grain greunyaff = to go to seed, to grain, to seed, to spawn
Breton (Brezhoneg)	greun(enn) [ˈɡrœ̃ːn] = grain greunaval(enn) [grønɑ:val] = pommegranate greunek = grainy, granular greunenniñ = to granulate, to be granulated greuniañ = to go to seed, to grain, to seed, to spawn greunvaen [ˈɡʁœ̃nvɛn] = granite greunwin = raisins

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *ǵr̥h₂nóm (grain), possibly from *ǵr̥h₂-nós (matured, grown old) from *ǵerh₂- (to grow old, to mature). Words from the same roots include grurë (wheat) in Albanian, corn and grain in English, Korn (kernel, cereal, corn, grain) in German, grano (wheat, corn, grain, peppercorn, money, pin) in Italian, zirnis (pea) in Latvian, зерно (zerno – grain, cereal, seed) in Russian and Ukrainian [source].

Gráinne in Irish, gràinne in Scottish Gaelic, and maybe grine in Manx, come from Old Irish gráinne, from Old French grain (grain), from Latin grānum (grain, seed, small kernel), from Proto-Italic *grānom (grain), from Proto-Indo-European *ǵr̥h₂nóm [source].

Proto-Celtic	*arwar = grain
Old Irish (Goídelc)	arbar [ˈar.βər] = grain, corn
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	arbar, arbor = grain, corn
Irish (Gaeilge)	arbhar [ˈaɾˠ(ə)wəɾˠ / əˈɾˠuːɾˠ] = corn, cereals
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	arbhar [aravər] = corn
Manx (Gaelg)	arroo = corn, grain
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	erwein(t) = meadow-sweet
Welsh (Cymraeg)	erwain(t) = meadow-sweet, Queen of the meadows

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂érh₃-wr̥/*h₂r̥h₃-wén-s, from *h₂erh₃- (to plough) [source]. Words from the same roots include aratro (plough) in Albanian, arado (plough) in Spanish, aradr (plough) in Welsh, erv (ridge between furrows) in Breton, and arti (to plough) in Lithuanian [source].

Masters

18th April 202518th April 2025 By Simon

Words for master and related things in Celtic languages.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	maigister [ˈmaɣʲisʲtʲer] = master, teacher
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	maigister, maigistir, magistor, magister = teacher, master, lord, owner
Irish (Gaeilge)	máistir [ˈmˠɑːʃtʲəɾʲ / ˈmˠaiʃtʲəɾʲ] = master, person in control, teacher, skilled person máistreacht = mastering, mastery, office of master, mastership máistreás = mistress, wife máistrigh = to master, lord it over s.o. máistriúil = masterful, imperious, masterly
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	maighistir [majɪʃdʲɪrʲ] = master maighstir [maiʃdʲɪrʲ] = master maighstireachd [maiʃdʲɪrʲəxg] = office of a master, mastery Maighstir = Mr maighstir-lagha = magistrate maor-sìthe = constable maorsainneachd [mɯːr̪ˠsɪn̪ʲəxg] = mastership, prefecture maighstireil = masterly, lordly, domineering
Manx (Gaelg)	mains(h)tyr, mainshter = boss, master, skipper, taskmaster mainshtyragh = bossy, domineering, master
Middle Welsh (Kyrmraec)	meistyr = master, ruler, chief, lord# meistres, mastres = mistress, woman in authority, lady, madam meistrawl, meistrol = masterly, masterful meistroli = to master, overcome, defeat, conquer
Welsh (Cymraeg)	meistr, ma(e)str = master, ruler, chief, lord, landlord, employer, teacher, instructor, guide meistr(i)aeth = mastery, authority, supremacy meistres, ma(e)stres = mistress, woman in authority, lady, madam meistr(i)ol = masterly, masterful meistr(i)oli = to master, overcome, defeat, conquer
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	maister = master
Cornish (Kernewek)	mester = boss, master, mister, Mr mester cirk = ringmaster mestres = boss, mistress, Mrs, Ms Mestresik = Miss mestrieth, mestrionieth = master’s degree mestrynses = dominion
Middle Breton	maestr, mestr, mestre = master
Breton (Brezhoneg)	mestr [ˈmɛst(r)] = master, chief, champion kartemestr = quartermaster mestr-kêr = mayor mestr-skol = teacher, school master mestrañ = to dominate, to lead mestrerezh = preponderance, dominance mestrez = mistress, (female) boss

Etymology: from Latin magister (master, chief, head, superior, teacher, instructor), from Proto-Italic *magisteros (bigger, greater) from Proto-Indo-European *meh₂- (good, great), or *meǵh₂- (big, great). Words from the same roots include master, maestro (a master in some art, especially a composer or conductor), magistrate and mister in English, maestro (master, expert) in Italian, maître (master, leader, teacher) in French, and мастер (master – master, craftsman, expert, foreman, repairman) in Russian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	ollam [ˈol͈aβ̃] = a master in a particular trade or skill, a professor, the highest rank of fili, chief poet, doctor
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ollam, olloman = the highest grade of fili, an expert in any art or science, a professor, chief
Irish (Gaeilge)	ollamh [ˈɔl̪ˠəvˠ / ˈɔl̪ˠuː] = master poet, master, expert, learned man, professor ollúnacht = professorship ollúnta = professorial
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ollamh [ɔl̪ˠəv] = professor ollamhachd [ɔl̪ˠəvəxg] = professorship ollamhan [ɔl̪ˠəvan] = doctor (of medicine / philosophy), bard of the first order
Manx (Gaelg)	olloo = doctor, don, professor, pundit trong>ollooaght = professorship

Etymology: from Old Irish oll (great, vast and -am (occupational noun-forming suffix) [source].

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	múintid, múntith = teacher, instructor
Irish (Gaeilge)	múinteoir [mˠuːn̠ʲˈtʲoːɾʲ / ˈmˠuːn̠ʲtʲoːɾʲ] = teacher múinteoireacht = (act of) teaching

Etymology: from Old Irish múnid (to teach, instruct, learn, show, point out), possibly from Latin moneō (to warn, advise, remind) [source], from Proto-Italic *moneō (to remind, warn), from *monejō, from Proto-Indo-European *moné-ye-ti, from the root *men- (to think). Words from the same roots include monitor in English, muñir (to arrange) in Spanish, and monieren (to criticize, complain about) in German [source].

Other words for teacher can be found on these post Scholarly Pupils and Fathers

Stewards & Mayors

8th April 2025 By Simon

Words for steward, agent, mayor and related things in Celtic languages.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	maer = steward
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	maer, maor, moer = steward maeraigecht = the office of a steward, stewardship maerda, maordha, mærda = stately, of noble or imposing presence
Irish (Gaeilge)	maor [mˠiːɾˠ / mˠeːɾˠ] = steward, baliff, warden, keeper, supervisor, herdsman, (school) prefect ardmhaor = chief steward banmhaor = stewardess maorach = supervisory, prefectorial maoracht = stewardship, wardenship, superinntendence, majorship, prefecture maorga = stately, dignified, imposting, sedate, quiet maorgacht = stateliness, dignity maorathach = bureaucratic méara = mayor
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	maor [mɯːr] = factor (profession), any middle-ranked officer / official in various capacities maor-ceartais = justice of the peace (JP) maor-cladaich = coastguard maor-sàraidh = baliff maor-sìthe = constable maorsainneachd [mɯːr̪ˠsɪn̪ʲəxg] = stewardship, prefecture mèar [mɛːr] = mayor
Manx (Gaelg)	meoir = steward, supervisor, agent, baliff, curator, custodian, keeper, manager, mayor, prefect meoir shee = constable, policeman meoiryn shee = constabulary, police (force) meoiragh = mayoral, prefectorial, supervisory meoiraght = mayorality, majorship, prefecture, stewardship
Proto-Brythonic	*maɨr = steward, agent, officer, official (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	mair = steward, agent, officer, official, husbandman
Middle Welsh (Kyrmraec)	maer = steward, agent, officer, official, husbandman, mayor maerty, maerdy = summer dwelling for the tending of cattle, dairy, dairy farm, farm-house
Welsh (Cymraeg)	maer [maːɨ̯r / mai̯r] = steward, agent, officer, official, husbandman, mayor maerdy = summer dwelling for the tending of cattle, dairy, dairy farm, farm-house, town hall, mansion house, official residence of the mayor maeres = farmer’s wife, steward’s wife, dairy woman, mayor’s wife, mayoress maeriaeth = husbandry, agriculture, mayoralty maerol = mayoral maeron = bailiff, dairy farmer
Old Cornish	mair = mayor, chief (?)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	mair, maer = mayor, chief
Cornish (Kernewek)	maynor(es) = agent maynorieth = agency mer(es) = mayor(ess) merji = home of the mayor
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	mair = mayor (?)
Middle Breton	mair = mayor
Breton (Brezhoneg)	merour, merer(ez) = manager, administor, manager, steward, farmer, grower mereuri = farmhouse, farm merouriezh = management, administration, husbandry maer(ez) [mɛːr] = mayor(ess) maerded = mayor’s office maerdi = town hall

Etymology: from Latin māior (mayor; bigger, greater), from Proto-Italic magjōs (bigger, greater) from Proto-Indo-European *meǵh₂- (big, great) [source]. The Irish and Scottish Gaelic words for mayor come from the Old French maire (a senior public official), from Latin māior etc [source].

Words from the same roots include magistrate, major, majesty, majuscule and mayor, master, mister in English, maire (mayor) in French, maestro (master, expert) in Italian, and Mallorca / Majorca in Spanish [source].

Scholarly Pupils

27th March 202518th April 2025 By Simon

A post about words for disciple, pupil, student, school and related things in Celtic languages, and related words in other languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	deiscipul [ˈdʲesʲkʲibul] = disciple, student
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	deiscipul, disgibul, deiscibul = disciple, pupil
Irish (Gaeilge)	deisceabal [ˈdʲɛʃcəbˠəlˠ] = disciple
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	deisciobal [dʲeʃgʲəbəl̪ˠ] = disciple deisciobalachd [dʲeʃgʲəbəl̪ˠəxg] = discipleship
Proto-Brythonic	*dɨskɨbl = disciple (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	disgybyl, discipl, dyscybl = learner, pupil, beginner, apprentice, novice, adherent, follower, disciple disgyblaeth, discipliaeth = discipline, discipleship, doctrine, religious, instruction disgyblu, discyblu = to imitate, emulate
Welsh (Cymraeg)	disgybl [ˈdɪsɡɨ̞bl/ˈdɪskɪbl̩] = learner, pupil, beginner, apprentice, novice, adherent, follower, disciple disgybl(i)aeth = discipline, discipleship, doctrine, religious, instruction disgyblaethu = to discipline disgyblu = to discipline, chastise, instruct, imitate, emulate
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	discebel, desgibl, disgibl, dyscybbl = disciple
Cornish (Kernewek)	dyskybel = disciple dyskybeleth = discipline
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	desquebl, disquebl, disquibl = disciple disquebles = disciple (female)
Breton (Brezhoneg)	diskibl, diskiblez = disciple, pupil diskiblezh = discipline

Etymology: from Latin disculpus (student pupil, disciple, schoolboy, cadet), from dis- (apart, asunder) and Proto-Italic *kapelos (one who takes) [source].

Words from the same roots may include disciple and discipline in English, discepolo (disciple, follower, pupil) in Italian, disciple (disciple) in French, and disciplina (discipline, subject) in Portuguese [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	daltae [ˈdal͈te] = disciple, pupil, foster-child, fosterling daltacht, daltachas, daltus = fosterage, pupilage daltán [ˈdal͈taːn] = little foster child, little pupil
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	daltae, daltai, dalta = a foster-son, fosterling, nursling, ward, pupil, disciple daltán = a little foster-child, a pupil, aterm of endearment daltachas = quarterage, billeting, military service, hire, tax, tribute, fosterage, guardianship dailtín = fosterling, a impudent or quarrelsome young man
Irish (Gaeilge)	dalta [d̪ˠalˠt̪ˠə] = foster-child, pupil, disciple, student, alumnus, cadet, pet, fondling daltachas = fosterage, pupilage, discipleship daltán = (little) foster-child, young pupil daltas = cadetship
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dalta [dal̪ˠdə] = foster child, fosterling, stepchild daltachas [dal̪ˠdəxəs] = fosterage daltachd [dal̪ˠdəxg] = fostering
Manx (Gaelg)	doltey = adopted child, ward, fosterling, pupil, protégé, cadet, initiate doltaghey = foster, fostering doltaghys = fosterage, pupilage doltanagh = initiate dolteynys = adoption, wardship dolteyder = adopted parent, adopter, fosterer

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *dʰeh₁-lu-s, from *dʰeh₁(y)- (to suck), which is also the root of words such as figlio (son) in Italian, fils (son) in French, and hijo (son, child) in Spanish [source].

Irish (Gaeilge)	meabhraitheoir = reflective, thoughtful, speculative person
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	myfyriwr = student, one who meditates
Welsh (Cymraeg)	myfyriwr, myfyrwraig [məˈvərjʊr, məˈvərwrai̯ɡ] = student, one who meditates

Etymology: (Welsh) from Welsh myfyrio (to meditate upon, ponder, study), from myfyr (meditation, thought), from Proto-Brythonic *meβ̃ör, from Latin memoria (memory, remembrance), from memor (mindful, remembering), of uncertain origin [source].

The Irish word comes from the same Latin root, via Middle Irish mebair (recollection, memory) and Old Irish mebuir (recollection, memory) [source].

Words from the same roots include memory, memoir and memorial in English, mémoire (memory, memo, dissertation, paper, memoir, brief) in French, memoria (memory, report, document) in Spanish, meabhair (mind, memory, consciousness, awareness, reason, sensation, feeling) in Irish, and meomhair (memory, memorandum, thinking) in Scottish Gaelic [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	scol = school scolaige = scholar, student scolóc = disciple, scholar, servant, student, tenant of church
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	scol = school scolóc, scológ, scolóic = scholar, pupil, student, disciple, follower, servant, youth, lad, tenant of (church) land, farmer
Irish (Gaeilge)	scoil = school scolaíoch = scholastic scolaíocht = schooling, school education scoláire = scholar, learned person scoláireacht = scholarship, learning scolártha = scholarly
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sgoil = school sgoilear [sgɔlər] = scholar, pupil, schoolboy, schoolgirl, school teacher sgoilearach [sgɔlərəx] = scholarly, scholastic, academic(al) sgoilearachas [sgɔlərəxəs] = scholarship sgoilearachd [sgɔlɛrəxg] = scholarship, schooling, (act of) studying
Manx (Gaelg)	scoill, schoill = school scollag = boy, lad, stripling, youngers, scholar schoillar = scholar, student scoillar = academic, man of learning, pupil schoillaragh = scholarly, scholastic schoillaraght, schoillarys = scholarship
Proto-Brythonic	*ɨskol = school
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	escol, iscol, yscol, ysgol = school escolheyc, yscolheic, ysgolhaig = scholar, erudite or learned person, disciple, pupil, student escolheyctaut, ysgolhectod, ysgolheictot = scholarship, learning, erudition ysgoler = pupil, schoolchild, student, scholar
Welsh (Cymraeg)	ysgol [ˈəskɔl] = school ysgolaidd = scholastic, educational, academic ysgolhaig = scholar, erudite or learned person, disciple, pupil, student ysgolheictod = scholarship, learning, erudition (y)sgolor, (y)sgolar, (y)sgoler = pupil, schoolchild, student, scholar prifysgol = university
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	scol = school scolheic = scholar
Cornish (Kernewek)	skol [skoːl] = school skoler = scholar skolheygel = scholarly, erudite skolheyk, skolheyges = scholar, student skolheygieth = scholarship skolji = schoolhouse pennskol, pednskol = university
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	scol = school scolaër [skoˈlɛːr] = scholar, teacher, schoolmaster
Breton (Brezhoneg)	skol [skoːl/skuːl] = school skolaer, skolaerez [skoˈlɛːr] = scholar, teacher, schoolmaster skolaj [ˈskoː.laʃ] = college, high school skol-veur = university skoliad [ˈsko.ljat] = pupil, student skoliañ = to instruct, teach

Etymology: from Latin schola (schooltime, classtime, school, student body, art gallery), from Ancient Greek σχολή (skholḗ – leisure, free time, rest, lecture, disputation, discussion, philosophy, school, lecture hall), from Proto-Hellenic *skʰolā́ (holding back), from Proto-Indo-European *sǵʰ-h₃-léh₂, from Proto-Indo-European *seǵʰ- (to hold) [source].

Words from the same roots include epoch, hectic, scheme, scholar, school, severe and sketch in English, école (school) in French, scuola (school, class, lesson, grade) in Italian, and Schule (school) in German [source].

Irish (Gaeilge)	mac léinn = student
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	mac-léighinn = student (archaic)

Etymology: from Old Irish macc (son, child) and légend (act of studying), which comes from Latin legendum, from legō (to choose, appoint, collect, read) [source].

Proto-Celtic	*suwits = wise, knowledgeable person
Old Irish (Goídelc)	suí [ˈsui̯] = sage, scholar, expert, learned man, master, wise man
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	suí, sui, súid = man of learning, scholar, wise man, sage, head of a monastic or poetic school suíthemail, saithemail, saothamail = skilled, accomplished, learned, wise, fair, beautiful, pleasant, agreeable
Irish (Gaeilge)	saoi [sˠiː] = head of a monastic or poetic school, wise man, learned man, master, expert, eminent, distinguished, person saíocht = learning, erudition, mastery, accomplishment saoithiúil [ˈsiːhwəlʲ] = learned, wise, skilled, accomplished, humorous, entertaining, pleasant, agreeable, funny, peculiar saoithiúilacht = learning, wisdom, skill, accomplishment, humorousness, pleasantness, mirth, oddness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	saoidh [sɤj] = worthy, righteous person
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	syw, syỽ = excellent, splendid, elegant, smart, neat, merry, joyful sywedyt, sywyedyd, sywedydd = astronomer, seer, soothsayer, wizard, wise or learned man, teacher
Welsh (Cymraeg)	syw = excellent, splendid, elegant, smart, neat, merry, joyful, wise, learned, skilful, dexterous sywder = elegance, neatness, smartness syw(i)edydd = astronomer, seer, soothsayer, wizard, wise or learned man, teacher

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *su- (good) and *wid- (to know) [source]. Words from the same roots include euphoria, euphemism and other words beginning with eu- in English [source]

Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	stuidear [sdudʲər] = student, study (room)
Manx (Gaelg)	studeyr = student
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ystudiwr, astudiwr = student, scholar, academic
Welsh (Cymraeg)	(a)studiwr = student, scholar, academic
Cornish (Kernewek)	studhyer, studhyores = student
Breton (Brezhoneg)	studier = student

Etymology: from English study or Middle French estudier (to study) [source].

Another word for student is oileanach [ɤlanəx] (‘one who is instructed’) in Scottish Gaelic [source]. The word oileánach also exists in Irish, but it means islander, insular or abounding in islands [source].

Nights

20th March 2025 By Simon

A post about words for night, evening and related things in Celtic languages, and related words in other languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	adaig [ˈaðəɣʲ] = night
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	adaig, aidche, oidche, adhaigh = night
Irish (Gaeilge)	oíche [ˈiːhɪ/ˈĩːçə/ˈɪhə] = night, period of darkness, night-time, nightfall, eve anoíche = late hour of night meánoíche = midnight oíchí = nocturnal, nightly Oíche Shamhna = Halloween Oíche Nollag = Christmas Eve oíche chinn bliana = New Year’s eve
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	oidhche [ɤ̃ĩçə] = night oidhcheach [ɤ̃ĩçəx] = nightly, nocturnal oidhcheil [ɤ̃ĩçal] = nightly Oidhche Shamhna = Halloween Oidhche Nollaige = Christmas Eve oidhche Challainn [ɤ̃çəˈxal̪ɪn̪ʲ] = New Year’s eve adhaigh†, adhuigh† = night
Manx (Gaelg)	oie [ɛi/iː] = night, eve, night time, nocturnal, evening oieagh = nocturnal oieoil = nightly Oie Houney = Halloween, Hop tu Naa Oie Nollick = Christmas Eve Oie Nollick Veg = New Year’s eve
Proto-Brythonic	*exuɨð = night (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	hecuuyt, echwyd, echwyt = the third hour of the day (9am), interval between 9am and 12 noon, noon, time of the day when cattle etc. shelter from the heat
Welsh (Cymraeg)	echwydd [ˈhɨ̞ðɨ̞ɡl / ˈhɪðɪɡl] = the third hour of the day (9am), interval between 9am and 12 noon, noon, time of the day when cattle etc. shelter from the heat, afternoon, evening, close of day, autumn
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	ewhe = evening
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	ehoaz, ehoa = cattle rest at midday, resting place, shade for animals, rest ehoazaff = to day a midday rest
Breton (Brezhoneg)	ec’hoaz [ˈhyː(z)il] = midday rest, siesta ec’hoazañ = to take a midday rest ec’hoaziad = siesta ec’hoaziata = to take a siesta

Etymology: uncertain. The Goidelic words, and maybe the Brythonic words, are possibly related to āter (dull black, dark, gloomy, sad) in Latin [source], which comes from Proto-Italic *ātros (black), from Proto-Indo-European *h₂eh₁ter- (fire) [source].

Words from the same roots may include atrocious and atrocity in English, âtre (hearth, matte black) in French, atro (dark, black, bleak, brooding) in Italian, and atro (jet-black, bad, evil, sinister) in Portuguese [source].

Proto-Celtic	noxt-stu- = night (?) sindai noxtē = tonight
Gaulish	nox = night (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	nocht = night innocht = tonight
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	nocht = night innocht = tonight
Irish (Gaeilge)	anocht [əˈn̪ˠɔxt̪ˠ] = tonight
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	a-nochd [əˈn̪ˠɔ̃xg] = tonight
Manx (Gaelg)	noght = tonight
Proto-Brythonic	*hanoɨθ = tonight
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	nos = night henoid = tonight
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	nos = night nosa, nossi, nosi = to become night, fall (of night) nossavl, nossol, nosawl = nightlike, nocturnal, nightly nos hon, noshon, nosson = evening, night nosweith, nossweith, noswaith = evening, night heno = tonight
Welsh (Cymraeg)	nos [noːs] = night, evening, darkness (of night), vigil nosi, nosáu = to become night, fall (of night) nosaidd = nightlike nosol = nightlike, nocturnal, nightly noson = evening, night noswaith = evening, night heno = tonight
Old Cornish	nos = night
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	nos, nôs = night haneth = tonight
Cornish (Kernewek)	nos = night nosweyth = night-time, at night noswiker = smuggler haneth = tonight
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	nos = night
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	nos = night fenozh, fennos, fenoz, fin-noz = tonight antronoz all = the day after tomorrow
Breton (Brezhoneg)	noz [ˈnoːs] = night noziñ [ˈnoːzĩ] = to get dark nozvezh [ˈnoz.vɛs] = overnight stay, duration of one night nozik = a little dark henoazh = tonight eil tronoz = the day after tomorrow

Etymology: either from Latin nox, from Proto-Italic *nokts (night), from Proto-Indo-European *nókʷts (night). Or via Proto-Celtic *noxs (night), from the same PIE root [source].

Words from the same roots include night in English, Nacht (night) in German, ochtend (morning) in Dutch, otta (dawn, early morning) in Swedish, ακτίνα (aktína – light ray, sunbeam) in Greek [source]

Benches

11th March 2025 By Simon

Words for bench and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	beinnse, beinse, béinse, beindsi = bench, table, the Judicial Bench
Irish (Gaeilge)	binse [ˈbʲiːnʲʃə] = bench, seat, the Bench, bank, ledge binseoir = bencher binsín = little bench, little bunch of rushes binse breithimh = judge’s bench, tribunal
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	being [beiŋʲgʲ] = bench, form being-aghaidh = front bench being-chùil = back bench being-dhùbhlain = opposition bench
Manx (Gaelg)	bink = bench, base bink obbree = workbench bink saaue = sawbench bink ny bingey = jury box
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	bainc, meink, meinc = bench, long seat, form, settle, stool, footstool, workbench
Welsh (Cymraeg)	mainc, maing, bainc, baing [mai̯ŋk, mai̯ŋg, bai̯ŋk, bai̯ŋg] = bench, long seat, form, settle, stool, footstool, workbench; seat of judge or justice, court of law, bench of judges or magistrates, throne mainc flaen = front bench (in parliament) mainciau cefn = back benches (in parliament) meinciwr cefn = back-bencher meincia(i)d = benchful, bank (of oars) meincnod = bench-mark
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	benc, vync = bench
Cornish (Kernewek)	bynk, benk = bench, platform, workbench
Breton (Brezhoneg)	menk [mɛɲk] = stone bench

Etymology (Irish): from Middle English bench (bench), from Old English benċ, bænc [bentʃ] (bench), from Proto-West-Germanic *banki (bench), from Proto-Germanic *bankiz [ˈbɑŋ.kiz] (a raised surface, bulge, hillock, slope, bench) the Proto-Indo-European *bʰeg- (to bend, curve, arch) [source].

The Scottish Gaelic word comes from Scots bink (bench, bank, hob), from Middle English bench, etc. The Manx word possibly comes from the same roots [source].

The Welsh words come directly from Old English benċ [source].

Words from the same PIE root include back, bank and bench in English, banc (bench, bank, shoal) in French, bank (bench, couch, sofa) in Dutch, Bank (bench, workbench, bank) in German, and bänk (bench, workbench, desk, worktop) in Swedish [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	sceimel = rampart, protective covering
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	sceimel, sgeimheal = cover, protective roof covering, roof, wall, rampart
Irish (Gaeilge)	sceimheal = eaves, projecting rim, flange, outer, encircling wall, rampart
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sgibheal = eaves (of a roof)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	yscauelh, ysgavell = shelf, sill, rim, ledge, (eye)brow, cave
Welsh (Cymraeg)	(y)sgafell = shelf, sill, rim, ledge, (eye)brow, cave
Old Cornish	scamell = bench, stool
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	scavel = bench, stool
Cornish (Kernewek)	skavel = stool skavel droos = footstool skavel gronek = mushroom, toadstool
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	scabell, scabel, scabeu = stool
Breton (Brezhoneg)	skaoñ, skabell [ˈskoːãn / ˈskɑː.bɛl] = stool, stepladder skabeller = chair maker

Etymology: from Latin scabellum (footstool, a kind of percussion instrument played by the foot,), from scamnum (stool, step, bench, stool, ridge), from *scabnum, from Proto-Italic *skaβnom, from Proto-Indo-European *skabʰ-no-m, from *skabʰ- (to hold up, support). [source].

Words from the same roots include sgabello (stool, footstool) in Italian, escabel (footrest, footstool) in Spanish, escabeau (step ladder) in French, shamble(s) in English, and Schemel (footstool, stool) in German [source].

Bottles

19th February 202519th February 2025 By Simon

Words for bottle and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	buidél, buidel = bottle
Irish (Gaeilge)	buidéal [bˠɪˈdʲeːl̪ˠ / ˈbˠʊdʲeːlˠ / ˈbˠɪdʲalˠ] = bottle buidéalaí = bottler buidéalaigh = to bottle
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	buideal [budʲəl̪ˠ] = bottle buidealair [budʲəl̪ʲɛrʲ] = butler buidealaireachd [budʲəl̪ʲɪrʲəxg] = occupation of a butler boicheal [bɔçəl̪ˠ] = bottle botal [bɔhdəl̪ˠ] = bottle botalaichte [bɔhdəl̪ʲɪçdʲə] = bottled botalaich [bɔhdəl̪ʲɪç] = bottle!
Manx (Gaelg)	boteil = bottle boteilagh = to bottle, bottlelike boteilaghey = bottle, bottling
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	potel(l), botel(l) = bottle, wineskin, bottleful, drink, medicine
Welsh (Cymraeg)	potel [ˈpɔtal / ˈpɔtɛl] = bottle, wineskin, bottleful, drink, medicine potelaf, potelu = to bottle potelaid = bottleful potelog = characterized by the sound of clinking bottles, pertaining to bottles
Cornish (Kernewek)	botel = abbot botella, botla = to bottle botellas = bottleful boteller = butler
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	boutaill = bottle boutaillat = bottled, bottleful boutoiller = bottler, sommelier
Breton (Brezhoneg)	boutailh [ˈbutːaʎ / ˈbutːalj] = bottle boutailhad [bu.ˈta.ʎ:at] = bottled, bottleful boutailher = bottler, sommelier boutailherezh = office of a sommelier

Etymology from Middle English botel (bottle), from Old French botele (bottle), from Late Latin butticula (bottle, flask), a diminutive of buttis (cask), possibly from Proto-Indo-European *bew-(to swell) [source].

The Welsh and Cornish words come via Middle English, while the words in the other languages come directly from Old French [source].

Words from the same roots include boot, butt (cask, barrel), and butler in English, botte (barrel, cask) in Italian, botte (boot, oppression) in French, botija (jug, vessel) in Spanish, butoi (barrel, cask) in Romanian, and buta (butt, cask, stock, stocky person) in Irish [source].

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	putraic, potraic, puitric = a vessel or bottle for containing liquor
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	puitric† = bottle

Etymology maybe from Latin pōtiō (drinking, drink draught, potion), from pōtō (to drink), from Proto-Italic *pōtos (drunk), from Proto-Indo-European *ph₃tós (having been drunk, having drunk), from *peh₃- (to drink) [source].

Words from the same roots include beverage, bibacious, bibulous, imbibe, poison, potable, potion and symposium in English, boire (to drink) in French, potabile (drinkable, potable) in Italian, and beber (to drink, draw from) in Spanish [source].

Irish (Gaeilge)	searróg = stone bottle (of hay or straw)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	searrag = bottle, flask, phial, stoup, cup, bundle of hay soireag [sɔrʲag] = small vessel, small flask/bottle, small vase, small sack
Welsh (Cymraeg)	jar, jâr = jar, hot water bottle
Cornish (Kernewek)	jarrik = jar
Breton (Brezhoneg)	jarl = (clay, earthenware) jar

Etymology possibly from English jar [source], from Middle English jarre (jar), from Medieval Latin jarra (jar), or from Middle French jarre (liquid measure), or from Spanish jarra, jarro (jug, pitcher, mug, stein), all from Arabic جَرَّة (jarra – jar, amphora) [source].

Manx (Gaelg)	costrayl = bottle, jar, leather bottle
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	costrel, kostrele = flagon, bottle, costrel, skin bottle, keg costreleit, costreled = bottleful, flagonful
Welsh (Cymraeg)	costrel [ˈkʰɔstrɛl] = flagon, bottle, costrel, skin bottle, keg, measure of two quarts costrel win = wine bottle, wine flagon costrelau’r nefoedd = the bottles of heaven, the clouds costrelu, costrelo = to bottle, preserve, treasure costrelaid = bottleful, flagonful costrelan = phial, ampulla, flask costreliad = a bottling costrelig = small costrel, phial, flask costrelwr, costrelydd = one who carries wine or water in bottles, bottle-maker and seller

Etymology from Middle English costrel(le) (any small container or means of storage for liquids; a costrel), from Old French costerel (container for a liquid), from costeret, from costerez, from Latin costa (rib, side, wall), Proto-Italic *ko(n/r)stā- (rib), of uncertain origin. Possibly from Proto-Indo-European *kost- [source]. The French word cotret (bundle of sticks, stick, rod) comes from the same roots [source].

Pursuing Followers

11th January 2025 By Simon

Words for to follow, pursue and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*sekʷetor = to follow
Old Irish (Goídelc)	seichithir = to follow, persue sechem = following, imitating
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	seichithir sechethar, sechtir = to follow, persue sechem, sechim = following, imitating sechimthid, seichteóir, seichthid = follower
Irish (Gaeilge)	seicheamh = following, taking after, imitating, sequence, progression fosheicheamh = subsequence

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *sékʷetor (to be following), from *sekʷ- (to follow) [source]. Words from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Gaulish (?) and Latin segusius (a hunting dog) include: sabuxo (hound) in Galician, segugio (hound, bloodhound, private eye, sleuth) in Spanish, and sabujo (hound, submissive person) in Portuguese [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include: associate, sector, sequence, society, (to) sue, suit, suite and subsequent in English, suivre (to follow) in French, sèkti (to observe, track down, follow, spy on) in Lithuanian, and seguir (to follow, continue, keep (on)) in Spanish [source].

Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	sewye, sewé, sywé = to follow, persue
Cornish (Kernewek)	sewya = to follow, result holyans = consequence, outcome, result, sequel

Etymology: from English (to) sue [source], which used to mean to follow or court, and comes from Middle English seuen (to follow, walk behind, be guided), from Anglo-Norman suer, siwer (to follow), from Old French sivre (to follow after), from Vulgar Latin *sequere (to follow), from Latin sequī, from sequor (to follow, pursue, succeed), from Proto-Italic *sekʷōr (to follow, come/go after), from Proto-Indo-European *sekʷ- (to follow) [source].

Proto-Celtic	linati = to stick, cling ati-linati = to adhere, stick to, cling
Old Irish (Goídelc)	lenaid [ˈl͈ʲenɨðʲ] = to stick, cling, follow, remain, continue, survive lenamain = adhering, clinging, following ad·len = to follow, adhere
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lena(i)d = to remain, continue, survive, pursue, persist, cleave to, cling to, adhere to, stay with, follow len(a)main = adhering, clinging to, stuck in, following, pursuing ad·len = to follow, adhere
Irish (Gaeilge)	lean [lʲan̪ˠ] = to follow, continue, remain, endure leantach = consecutive, continuing leantóir = follower, trailer leanúint = following, persuit, adherence, continuation leanúnach = follower, pursuer, successor, continuant, continuous, successive leanúnachas = continuity, attachment, faithfulness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lean [l̪ʲɛn] = follow, pursue, ensue, succeed, follow, continue, go on, stick to leanachd [l̪ʲɛnəxg] = following, pursuing, pursuit, followers, ensuing, succeeding, continuing leanadail [l̪ʲɛnədal] = attendant leanailteach [l̪ʲɛnnaldʲəx] = adhesive, sticking, sticky, dogged, persistent, tenacious leanailteachd [l̪ʲɛnaldʲəxg] = continuity, perseverance, tenacity, adhesiveness, adhesion leanaltas = perseverance
Manx (Gaelg)	lhian(t) = to follow lhiantag = attachment lhiantyn = following lhiantyn da/gys = to cleave (to) lhiantyn hug = to attach, obsess lhiantyn huggey = to take after lhiantyn rish = to cleave, persevere, pursue, stick to, cling lhiantys = adherence, attachment lhiantynys = adhesion, attachment
Proto-Brythonic	*llɨnad = to stick, cling
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	linisant = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llynu = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear edlynv, eddlynu, edlynu = to smear, besmear, daub, slabber, befoul
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llynaf, llynu = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear edlynaf, edlynu = to smear, besmear, daub, slabber, befoul

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂leyH- (to smear) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include lime, liniment, loam and delete in English, lijm (glue) in Dutch, limon (silt) in French, Leim (glue) in German, limo (mud, slime, silt) in Italian, and lim (glue) in Swedish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*solgos = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	olhau = to follow, trace
Welsh (Cymraeg)	olhaf, olhau = to follow, trace
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	holye = to come after, to follow
Cornish (Kernewek)	holya = to follow holyans = sequence holyer, holyores = follower
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	hol = (act of) following
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	heul = following heultaff = to follow
Breton (Brezhoneg)	heul [høːl] = continuation, cortege, parade, escort, procession heuli(a)ñ [ˈhøljã] = to follow heul(iad) [ˈhø.ljat] = procession, line, sequence, continuation, series, train heuliadur = extension heuliata = to continue heuliataer = follower heulier = follower, adept, minion heulius = conformist

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *selgʰ- (to follow) [source].

Dutiful Laws

30th December 20246th February 2025 By Simon

Words for duty, debt, law, rule and related things in Celtic languages.

Scottish Parliament / Pàrlamaid na h-Alba / Scots Pairlament

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*dligeti = to be entitled to, be obligated to
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dligid = to deserve, merit, be entitled to
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dligid, dleagaid = to be entitled to, have a right to, be owed, deserve, merit
Irish (Gaeilge)	dligh [dʲlʲɪɟ/dʲlʲiː] = to be entitled to, have a right to, deserve, merit, be incumbent on, be liable to, ought to
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dligh [dli] = owe, be due dleas [dles] = deserve, merit, due dleasach [dlesəx] = deserving, meriting dleasadh [dlesəɣ] = (act of) deserving, meriting dleasannas [dlesən̪ˠəs] = obligation, duty dleasanta [dlesən̪ˠdə] = deserving, meriting dleasnach [dlesn̪ˠəx] = dutiful dleastanas [dlesdənəs] = obligation, duty
Manx (Gaelg)	toill = to deserve, will toillchin = to deserve, earn, merit, reward; derserving, worthy toillchinagh = deserving, meritorious toillchinys = desert, merit toillchyn = to deserve, merit toilliu = to deserve, earn, merit; deserving, worthy
Proto-Brythonic	*dɨlɣɨd = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	deleu, dyly, dylu = to be obliged to, ought, be indebted, behove, owe, be in debt, have a right to, claim, merit, deserve, posses, claim from
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dylu [ˈklɛðɨ̞v/ˈkleːðɪv] = to be obliged to, ought, be indebted, behove, owe, be in debt, have a right to, claim, merit, deserve, posses, claim from (other forms include: dylaf, dylÿaf, dlyaf, dylÿu, dlyu, dleu, deleu)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	dely, dylly = to owe, deserve
Cornish (Kernewek)	tyli = to owe, pay, reward tylva = checkout, till
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dleout = must
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dleout [ˈdleː.ut] = to have to, must, owe dleañ = to have to, must, owe; judicious

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *dʰlégʰ-ti/*dʰl̥gʰ-énti, from *dʰlegʰ- (to beat, strike) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots possibly include dolog (thing, object, affair, business, task, fate) in Hungarian, dług (debt, account payable) in Polish, долг (dolg – debt, duty, obligation) in Russian, and dlh (debt) in Slovak [source].

Proto-Celtic	*dligetom = duty, debt
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dliged, dligeth [ˈdʲlʲiɣʲeð] = law, principle, rule, theory, dictum dlecht = lawful dligthech = lawful, right
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dliged, dligeth, dleged = law, principle, rule, norm, dictum, reason, argument, reckoning, nature, condition, kind, manner dligedach = lawful dligemnas = lawful right dligthech = regular, right, lawful, law-abiding, rational, reasonable, just, righteous dligthe(m)nach, dligtheanuigh = lawgiver dligtheoir = lawyer, man of law
Irish (Gaeilge)	dlí [dʲlʲiː] = law, divine precept, scientific principle, litigation dlíodóir = lawyer dlíodóireacht = practice of law, practising law dlíthí = litigant dlíthíoch = litigious dlíthíocht = litigiousness dlíthiúil = legal, juridicial, lawful, litigious dlíthiúilacht = legality, lawfulness dleacht = due, lawful right, royalty, patent dleathach = lawful, legal, valud, genuine, just, proper dleathaíocht = legality, justice, propriety
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dlighe [dli.ə] = ordinance (in law), due dligheach [dli.əx] = lawful, legitimatem rightful, right, due, dutiful, just dligheachas [dli.əxəs] = lawful right, jurisdiction, validity dligheachd [dli.əxg] = legality, royalty (payment) dligheadh [dli.əɣ] = (act of) owing, being due, stipend dlighear [dli.ər] = lawyer, creditor dligheil [dli.al] = legitimate, lawful, rightful
Proto-Brythonic	*dlɨɣed = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	delehet, deleed, dylyet, dlyet, dylet = debt, due, claim, right, demand, oblitation, duty dylyedawc, dylyedauc, dylyedaỽc dyledawg = noble, privileged, dignified, illustrious, rightful dyledogaeth, dlyedogaeth = nobility, lordship, proprietorship dylyedus, dyledus = due, proper, meet, lawful, worthy, just, necessary, requisite, owing, in debt, indebted dyledwr = debtor, defaulter, trespasser
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dyled [ˈdəlɛd] = debt, due, claim, right, demand, oblitation, duty, service, heritage, estate, worth, privilege, sins, transgressions, trespasses [also written dylêd, dled, dylyed, dlyed] dyled(i)ach = trifling debts, dribbling debts dyledu = to owe, be due, debit, make due dyledog = indebted, in debt, due, noble, privileged, dignified, illustrious, debtor dyl(y)edus = due, proper, meet, lawful, worthy, just, necessary, requisite, owing, in debt, indebted, noble, privileged, dignified, reasonable, sensible, understanding dyledwr = debtor, defaulter, trespasser
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dle = due, owing dleat = moral duty, tax
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dle = due, owing, debt dlead = moral duty, tax dleatour = debtor dleapl = liable dleoniezh = ethics d(e)leour = debtor, creditor

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *dligeti (to owe, be indebted to) – see above [source].

Proto-Celtic	*ká(g)ni- = tribute, law
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cáin [kaːnʲ] = law, regulation, rule, fine, tax, tribute, legal due
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cáin, cain = law, regulation, rule, fine, tax, tribute
Irish (Gaeilge)	cáin [kɑːnʲ/kaːnʲ] = law, regulation, rule, due, tribute, fine, penalty, impost, tax cáinaisnéis = budget cáinaisnéiseach = budgetary
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	càin [kaːn̪ʲ] = duty, tariff, tribute, fine; body of laws (archaic) càin-aisneis = budget càineach, càinear, càiniche = tax/excise collector, tax gatherer càineachadh [kaːn̪ʲəxəɣ] = (act of) imposing a tax

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *keh₂/₃ǵ-n- [source]. Words from the same root may include kázeň (discipline) in Czech, kaźń (execution, torture, torment) in Polish, and kázeň (sermon, discipline) in Slovak [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	cís = tax, tribute
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cís, cis, cíos = tax, tribute, cess, rent císach = receiving or exacting tribute císaige = tributary, rent-payer císugud = paying tribute
Irish (Gaeilge)	cíos [ciːsˠ] = rent, price; tax tribute (historical) cíosach = rent-paying, tributary cíosaí = rent-payer cíosaigh = to rent, pay rent for, compensate for cíoscháin = tribute cíoscheannach = hire-purchase
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cìos [kʲiəs] = tribute, tax cìs [kʲiːʃ] = tax, levy cìsachadh [kʲiːʃəxəɣ] = taxing, taxation cìsachas [kʲiːʃəxəs] = taxation cìseadair [kʲiːʃədɪrʲ] = exciseman cìsear [kʲiːʃər] = tax/excise collector, tax gatherer
Manx (Gaelg)	keesh = custom, duty, tax, toll, tribute, contribution keeshagh = assessable, taxable, tributary keeshyn = taxation, taxes, tribute, dues

Etymology: from Latin cēnsus (census, register, rich gifts, presents, wealth), from cēnseō from Proto-Italic *kensēō (to give an opinion), from *kensējō, from Proto-Indo-European *ḱenséh₁-ye-ti, from *ḱens- (to announce, proclaim, put in order). Words from the same roots may include census in English, censo (census, wealth) in Italian, Zins (interest, tribute) in German, and czynsz (rent) in Polish [source].

Proto-Celtic	rextus = rule, law kom-rextus = law (?)
Celtiberian	Retukeno = personal name
Gaulish	Rextugenos = personal name
Old Irish (Goídelc)	recht, rect [r͈ʲext] = law rechtach = law-giving rechtaid = lawgiver rechtaide = legal rechtaigid = to legislate rechtaire = steward rechtas = stewardship rechtge = government rechtmar = lawful
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	recht, rect, reacht = law, authority, rule, right, lawfulness rechtach = just, equitable, law-giving rechtaid, rechtaidh = judge, lawgiver rechtaide = legal, pertaining to the law, lawful rechtaigid = to legislate rechtaire, rechtorairge = steward, baliff, administrator, judge (?) rechtas, rechtus, rechtcus = authority, administration, stewardship rechtge, rechtga = government, authority, rule, regin rechtmar = lawful, legitimate
Irish (Gaeilge)	reacht [ɾˠaxt̪ˠ] = law, statute, accepted rule reachtach = law-giving, legislative reachtaigh = to legislate, enact, decree reachtaíocht = legislation reachtaire = controller, administrator, steward, Rector, auditor, master of ceremonies reachtas = administration, stewardship reachtmhar = lawful, legitimate reachtóir = lawgiver, legislator reachtúil = statutory, statute
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	reachd [r̪ˠɛxg] = decree, statue, edict reachdach [r̪ˠɛxgəx] = compulsory reachdachadh [r̪ˠɛxgəxəɣ] = (act of) legislating, law-making, legislature reachdadair [r̪ˠɛxgədɪrʲ] = lawmaker, legislator reachdadaireachd [r̪ˠɛxgədɪrʲəxg] = legislature reachdail [r̪ˠɛxgdal] = legislative, statutory reachdas [r̪ˠɛxgəs] = legislation
Proto-Brythonic	rreiθ = rule, law kuβ̃reiθ = law (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	reyth, reith, rhaith = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict cyfreith, kiureith, kefreyth [ˈkəvrai̯θ] = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhaith [r̥ai̯θ] = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict rhaithgor = jury cyfraith [ˈkəvrai̯θ] = law, legislation, statute, custom, usage, jurisprudence
Cornish (Kernewek)	reyth = regular, right, religious law reythennek, reythednek = statutory reythen = statute reythe = to authorise, codify, empower, entitle, qualify reythes = authorised, empowered, enacted, entitled, qualified reythyans = enactment, jurispridence, lawmaking, legislation
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	reith = law
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	rez, reiz = law rezder = law
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reizh = right, just, correct, order, normal reizhad = regular reizhadenn = rectification, corrected reizhadur = adjustment reizhan = to correct, adapt, regular, initiate reizhded = correctness, rectitude, normality reizhder = regularity reizhegezh = legitimacy reizhek = legitimate reizhekaat = to legitimize reizhennan = to regulate reizhus = legal

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₃reǵ- (to straighten, to righten) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include rail, rank, realm, regime, rule and regulation in English, rę́žti (to stretch) in Lithuanian, règle (rule, regulation) in French, and regla (rule, ruler) in Spanish [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	ríagal, ríagul = rule
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ríagal, riagoil, riaguil = rule, authority
Irish (Gaeilge)	riail [ɾˠiəlʲ] = rule, regulation, principle, sway, authority, order rialachán = regulation rialúchán = regulation, control
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	riaghail [r̪ˠiə.al] = rule, govern, administer riaghailt [r̪ˠiə.əldʲ] = rule, regulation, government riaghailteach [r̪ˠiə.əl̪ˠdʲəx] = regular, according to rule, orderly riaghailteachadh [r̪ˠiə.aldʲəxəɣ] = (act of) formulating, regulating, adjusting, adjustment riaghailteachas [r̪ˠiə.aldʲəxəs] = regulatory riaghailteachd = regularity, moderation riaghailtear [r̪ˠiə.aldʲər] = regulator riaghailtearachd [r̪ˠiə.aldʲərəxg] = administration riaghal [r̪ˠiə.əl̪ˠ] = rule
Manx (Gaelg)	reill = code, dominion, governance, policy, principle, reign; to charge, govern, order, regulate, rule reilley = to regulate, reign, rule; ruling reilleyder = governor, regulator, ruler, straight edge reilt = normal, to rule reiltagh = director, ordinal, president, rector, ruler; decisive, ruling, regular reiltys = governance, rule, kingdom, dominion, government
Proto-Brythonic	*rreɣol = rule (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ryol, reol, rhwol = rule, regulation, procedure, order, custom, pattern, government, dominion rhyolaeth, reolaeth = rule, control, management, authority, discipline rwyoli, reoli, ryoli, rhywoli = to rule, control, direct, govern roliad = rule, control, government ryolus, reolus, rheolus, rreolys = regular, orderly, disciplined, moderate, consant
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rheol [ˈr̥eː.ɔl] = rule, regulation, procedure, order, custom, pattern, government, dominion rheol(i)aeth = rule, control, management, authority, discipline rheoli = to rule, control, direct, govern rheolaidd = regular, regulated, orderly rheoliad = rule, control, government rheolus = regular, orderly, disciplined, moderate, consant
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	reol, rowl, rovle = rule, government rowler = ruler, governor
Cornish (Kernewek)	rewl, rowl = regulation, rule rewlya, rowlya = to control, regulate, rule rewlyades, rowlyades = ruler (f) rewlyas, rowlyas = ruler (m) rewlys = regular
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	regul = rule, regulation
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	reul, reol, reoll = rule, regulation reulenn = rule reulennaff = to regulate
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reol = rule, principle, regime reolennadur = regulation reolennan = to regulate reoliadur = regulation reoliata = to regulate reoliek = regular reolius = regulatory

Etymology: from Latin rēgula (rule, bar, ruler), from regō (I rule, govern, direct, guide, steer, control), from Proto-Italic *regō, from Proto-Indo-European *h₃réǵeti (to be straightening, to be setting upright), from *h₃reǵ- (to straighten, to righten) – see above [source].

Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lagh [l̪ˠɤɣ] = law laghachd [l̪ˠɤɣəxg] = legislation laghadh [l̪ˠɤɣəɣ] = legalising, legalisation laghaiche [l̪ˠɤɣɪçə] = lawyer, solicitor laghaichte [l̪ˠɤɣɪçdʲə] = legalised laghail [l̪ˠɤɣal] = legal, lawful, litigious, argumentative laghaileachd [l̪ˠɤɣaləxg] = lawfulness, legality
Manx (Gaelg)	leigh = enactment, law, respect leighagh = legal, litigious leighder = lawyer, advocate, attorney, barrister, council leighoil = lawful, legal, legislative, legitimate

Etymology: from English law, or Middle English lawe/laȝe (law, regulation, morality), or Old English lagu (law, rule, right), all of which come from Old Norse lǫg (law, rule, right), from Proto-Germanic *lagą (situation, law, a settled amount), from Proto-Indo-European *legʰ- (to lie [down]). The English words lie and lay come from the same roots [source].

Celtiadur

Exploring connections between Celtic languages

Category: Proto-Italic

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