Pursuing Followers

11th January 2025 By Simon

Words for to follow, pursue and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*sekʷetor = to follow
Old Irish (Goídelc)	seichithir = to follow, persue sechem = following, imitating
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	seichithir sechethar, sechtir = to follow, persue sechem, sechim = following, imitating sechimthid, seichteóir, seichthid = follower
Irish (Gaeilge)	seicheamh = following, taking after, imitating, sequence, progression fosheicheamh = subsequence

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *sékʷetor (to be following), from *sekʷ- (to follow) [source]. Words from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Gaulish (?) and Latin segusius (a hunting dog) include: sabuxo (hound) in Galician, segugio (hound, bloodhound, private eye, sleuth) in Spanish, and sabujo (hound, submissive person) in Portuguese [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include: associate, sector, sequence, society, (to) sue, suit, suite and subsequent in English, suivre (to follow) in French, sèkti (to observe, track down, follow, spy on) in Lithuanian, and seguir (to follow, continue, keep (on)) in Spanish [source].

Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	sewye, sewé, sywé = to follow, persue
Cornish (Kernewek)	sewya = to follow, result holyans = consequence, outcome, result, sequel

Etymology: from English (to) sue [source], which used to mean to follow or court, and comes from Middle English seuen (to follow, walk behind, be guided), from Anglo-Norman suer, siwer (to follow), from Old French sivre (to follow after), from Vulgar Latin *sequere (to follow), from Latin sequī, from sequor (to follow, pursue, succeed), from Proto-Italic *sekʷōr (to follow, come/go after), from Proto-Indo-European *sekʷ- (to follow) [source].

Proto-Celtic	linati = to stick, cling ati-linati = to adhere, stick to, cling
Old Irish (Goídelc)	lenaid [ˈl͈ʲenɨðʲ] = to stick, cling, follow, remain, continue, survive lenamain = adhering, clinging, following ad·len = to follow, adhere
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lena(i)d = to remain, continue, survive, pursue, persist, cleave to, cling to, adhere to, stay with, follow len(a)main = adhering, clinging to, stuck in, following, pursuing ad·len = to follow, adhere
Irish (Gaeilge)	lean [lʲan̪ˠ] = to follow, continue, remain, endure leantach = consecutive, continuing leantóir = follower, trailer leanúint = following, persuit, adherence, continuation leanúnach = follower, pursuer, successor, continuant, continuous, successive leanúnachas = continuity, attachment, faithfulness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lean [l̪ʲɛn] = follow, pursue, ensue, succeed, follow, continue, go on, stick to leanachd [l̪ʲɛnəxg] = following, pursuing, pursuit, followers, ensuing, succeeding, continuing leanadail [l̪ʲɛnədal] = attendant leanailteach [l̪ʲɛnnaldʲəx] = adhesive, sticking, sticky, dogged, persistent, tenacious leanailteachd [l̪ʲɛnaldʲəxg] = continuity, perseverance, tenacity, adhesiveness, adhesion leanaltas = perseverance
Manx (Gaelg)	lhian(t) = to follow lhiantag = attachment lhiantyn = following lhiantyn da/gys = to cleave (to) lhiantyn hug = to attach, obsess lhiantyn huggey = to take after lhiantyn rish = to cleave, persevere, pursue, stick to, cling lhiantys = adherence, attachment lhiantynys = adhesion, attachment
Proto-Brythonic	*llɨnad = to stick, cling
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	linisant = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llynu = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear edlynv, eddlynu, edlynu = to smear, besmear, daub, slabber, befoul
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llynaf, llynu = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear edlynaf, edlynu = to smear, besmear, daub, slabber, befoul

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂leyH- (to smear) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include lime, liniment, loam and delete in English, lijm (glue) in Dutch, limon (silt) in French, Leim (glue) in German, limo (mud, slime, silt) in Italian, and lim (glue) in Swedish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*solgos = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	olhau = to follow, trace
Welsh (Cymraeg)	olhaf, olhau = to follow, trace
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	holye = to come after, to follow
Cornish (Kernewek)	holya = to follow holyans = sequence holyer, holyores = follower
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	hol = (act of) following
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	heul = following heultaff = to follow
Breton (Brezhoneg)	heul [høːl] = continuation, cortege, parade, escort, procession heuli(a)ñ [ˈhøljã] = to follow heul(iad) [ˈhø.ljat] = procession, line, sequence, continuation, series, train heuliadur = extension heuliata = to continue heuliataer = follower heulier = follower, adept, minion heulius = conformist

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *selgʰ- (to follow) [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Dictionnaires bilingues de Francis Favereau / Edition Skol Vreizh, TermOfis

Dutiful Laws

30th December 202430th December 2024 By Simon

Words for duty, debt, law, rule and related things in Celtic languages.

Scottish Parliament / Pàrlamaid na h-Alba / Scots Pairlament

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*dligeti = to be entitled to, be obligated to
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dligid = to deserve, merit, be entitled to
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dligid, dleagaid = to be entitled to, have a right to, be owed, deserve, merit
Irish (Gaeilge)	dligh [dʲlʲɪɟ/dʲlʲiː] = to be entitled to, have a right to, deserve, merit, be incumbent on, be liable to, ought to
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dligh [dli] = owe, be due dleas [dles] = deserve, merit, due dleasach [dlesəx] = deserving, meriting dleasadh [dlesəɣ] = (act of) deserving, meriting dleasannas [dlesən̪ˠəs] = obligation, duty dleasanta [dlesən̪ˠdə] = deserving, meriting dleasnach [dlesn̪ˠəx] = dutiful dleastanas [dlesdənəs] = obligation, duty
Manx (Gaelg)	toill = to deserve, will toillchin = to deserve, earn, merit, reward; derserving, worthy toillchinagh = deserving, meritorious toillchinys = desert, merit toillchyn = to deserve, merit toilliu = to deserve, earn, merit; deserving, worthy
Proto-Brythonic	*dɨlɣɨd = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	deleu, dyly, dylu = to be obliged to, ought, be indebted, behove, owe, be in debt, have a right to, claim, merit, deserve, posses, claim from
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dylu [ˈklɛðɨ̞v/ˈkleːðɪv] = to be obliged to, ought, be indebted, behove, owe, be in debt, have a right to, claim, merit, deserve, posses, claim from (other forms include: dylaf, dylÿaf, dlyaf, dylÿu, dlyu, dleu, deleu)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	dely, dylly = to owe, deserve
Cornish (Kernewek)	tyli = to owe, pay, reward tylva = checkout, till
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dleout = must
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dleout [ˈdleː.ut] = to have to, must, owe dleañ = to have to, must, owe; judicious

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *dʰlégʰ-ti/*dʰl̥gʰ-énti, from *dʰlegʰ- (to beat, strike) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots possibly include dolog (thing, object, affair, business, task, fate) in Hungarian, dług (debt, account payable) in Polish, долг (dolg – debt, duty, obligation) in Russian, and dlh (debt) in Slovak [source].

Proto-Celtic	*dligetom = duty, debt
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dliged, dligeth [ˈdʲlʲiɣʲeð] = law, principle, rule, theory, dictum dlecht = lawful dligthech = lawful, right
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dliged, dligeth, dleged = law, principle, rule, norm, dictum, reason, argument, reckoning, nature, condition, kind, manner dligedach = lawful dligemnas = lawful right dligthech = regular, right, lawful, law-abiding, rational, reasonable, just, righteous dligthe(m)nach, dligtheanuigh = lawgiver dligtheoir = lawyer, man of law
Irish (Gaeilge)	dlí [dʲlʲiː] = law, divine precept, scientific principle, litigation dlíodóir = lawyer dlíodóireacht = practice of law, practising law dlíthí = litigant dlíthíoch = litigious dlíthíocht = litigiousness dlíthiúil = legal, juridicial, lawful, litigious dlíthiúilacht = legality, lawfulness dleacht = due, lawful right, royalty, patent dleathach = lawful, legal, valud, genuine, just, proper dleathaíocht = legality, justice, propriety
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dlighe [dli.ə] = ordinance (in law), due dligheach [dli.əx] = lawful, legitimatem rightful, right, due, dutiful, just dligheachas [dli.əxəs] = lawful right, jurisdiction, validity dligheachd [dli.əxg] = legality, royalty (payment) dligheadh [dli.əɣ] = (act of) owing, being due, stipend dlighear [dli.ər] = lawyer, creditor dligheil [dli.al] = legitimate, lawful, rightful
Proto-Brythonic	*dlɨɣed = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	delehet, deleed, dylyet, dlyet, dylet = debt, due, claim, right, demand, oblitation, duty dylyedawc, dylyedauc, dylyedaỽc dyledawg = noble, privileged, dignified, illustrious, rightful dyledogaeth, dlyedogaeth = nobility, lordship, proprietorship dylyedus, dyledus = due, proper, meet, lawful, worthy, just, necessary, requisite, owing, in debt, indebted dyledwr = debtor, defaulter, trespasser
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dyled [ˈdəlɛd] = debt, due, claim, right, demand, oblitation, duty, service, heritage, estate, worth, privilege, sins, transgressions, trespasses [also written dylêd, dled, dylyed, dlyed] dyled(i)ach = trifling debts, dribbling debts dyledu = to owe, be due, debit, make due dyledog = indebted, in debt, due, noble, privileged, dignified, illustrious, debtor dyl(y)edus = due, proper, meet, lawful, worthy, just, necessary, requisite, owing, in debt, indebted, noble, privileged, dignified, reasonable, sensible, understanding dyledwr = debtor, defaulter, trespasser
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dle = due, owing dleat = moral duty, tax
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dle = due, owing, debt dlead = moral duty, tax dleatour = debtor dleapl = liable dleoniezh = ethics d(e)leour = debtor, creditor

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *dligeti (to owe, be indebted to) – see above [source].

Proto-Celtic	*ká(g)ni- = tribute, law
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cáin [kaːnʲ] = law, regulation, rule, fine, tax, tribute, legal due
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cáin, cain = law, regulation, rule, fine, tax, tribute
Irish (Gaeilge)	cáin [kɑːnʲ/kaːnʲ] = law, regulation, rule, due, tribute, fine, penalty, impost, tax cáinaisnéis = budget cáinaisnéiseach = budgetary
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	càin [kaːn̪ʲ] = duty, tariff, tribute, fine; body of laws (archaic) càin-aisneis = budget càineach, càinear, càiniche = tax/excise collector, tax gatherer càineachadh [kaːn̪ʲəxəɣ] = (act of) imposing a tax

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *keh₂/₃ǵ-n- [source]. Words from the same root may include kázeň (discipline) in Czech, kaźń (execution, torture, torment) in Polish, and kázeň (sermon, discipline) in Slovak [source].

Proto-Celtic	rextus = rule, law kom-rextus = law (?)
Celtiberian	Retukeno = personal name
Gaulish	Rextugenos = personal name
Old Irish (Goídelc)	recht, rect [r͈ʲext] = law rechtach = law-giving rechtaid = lawgiver rechtaide = legal rechtaigid = to legislate rechtaire = steward rechtas = stewardship rechtge = government rechtmar = lawful
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	recht, rect, reacht = law, authority, rule, right, lawfulness rechtach = just, equitable, law-giving rechtaid, rechtaidh = judge, lawgiver rechtaide = legal, pertaining to the law, lawful rechtaigid = to legislate rechtaire, rechtorairge = steward, baliff, administrator, judge (?) rechtas, rechtus, rechtcus = authority, administration, stewardship rechtge, rechtga = government, authority, rule, regin rechtmar = lawful, legitimate
Irish (Gaeilge)	reacht [ɾˠaxt̪ˠ] = law, statute, accepted rule reachtach = law-giving, legislative reachtaigh = to legislate, enact, decree reachtaíocht = legislation reachtaire = controller, administrator, steward, Rector, auditor, master of ceremonies reachtas = administration, stewardship reachtmhar = lawful, legitimate reachtóir = lawgiver, legislator reachtúil = statutory, statute
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	reachd [r̪ˠɛxg] = decree, statue, edict reachdach [r̪ˠɛxgəx] = compulsory reachdachadh [r̪ˠɛxgəxəɣ] = (act of) legislating, law-making, legislature reachdadair [r̪ˠɛxgədɪrʲ] = lawmaker, legislator reachdadaireachd [r̪ˠɛxgədɪrʲəxg] = legislature reachdail [r̪ˠɛxgdal] = legislative, statutory reachdas [r̪ˠɛxgəs] = legislation
Proto-Brythonic	rreiθ = rule, law kuβ̃reiθ = law (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	reyth, reith, rhaith = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict cyfreith, kiureith, kefreyth [ˈkəvrai̯θ] = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhaith [r̥ai̯θ] = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict rhaithgor = jury cyfraith [ˈkəvrai̯θ] = law, legislation, statute, custom, usage, jurisprudence
Cornish (Kernewek)	reyth = regular, right, religious law reythennek, reythednek = statutory reythen = statute reythe = to authorise, codify, empower, entitle, qualify reythes = authorised, empowered, enacted, entitled, qualified reythyans = enactment, jurispridence, lawmaking, legislation
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	reith = law
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	rez, reiz = law rezder = law
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reizh = right, just, correct, order, normal reizhad = regular reizhadenn = rectification, corrected reizhadur = adjustment reizhan = to correct, adapt, regular, initiate reizhded = correctness, rectitude, normality reizhder = regularity reizhegezh = legitimacy reizhek = legitimate reizhekaat = to legitimize reizhennan = to regulate reizhus = legal

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₃reǵ- (to straighten, to righten) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include rail, rank, realm, regime, rule and regulation in English, rę́žti (to stretch) in Lithuanian, règle (rule, regulation) in French, and regla (rule, ruler) in Spanish [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	ríagal, ríagul = rule
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ríagal, riagoil, riaguil = rule, authority
Irish (Gaeilge)	riail [ɾˠiəlʲ] = rule, regulation, principle, sway, authority, order rialachán = regulation rialúchán = regulation, control
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	riaghail [r̪ˠiə.al] = rule, govern, administer riaghailt [r̪ˠiə.əldʲ] = rule, regulation, government riaghailteach [r̪ˠiə.əl̪ˠdʲəx] = regular, according to rule, orderly riaghailteachadh [r̪ˠiə.aldʲəxəɣ] = (act of) formulating, regulating, adjusting, adjustment riaghailteachas [r̪ˠiə.aldʲəxəs] = regulatory riaghailteachd = regularity, moderation riaghailtear [r̪ˠiə.aldʲər] = regulator riaghailtearachd [r̪ˠiə.aldʲərəxg] = administration riaghal [r̪ˠiə.əl̪ˠ] = rule
Manx (Gaelg)	reill = code, dominion, governance, policy, principle, reign; to charge, govern, order, regulate, rule reilley = to regulate, reign, rule; ruling reilleyder = governor, regulator, ruler, straight edge reilt = normal, to rule reiltagh = director, ordinal, president, rector, ruler; decisive, ruling, regular reiltys = governance, rule, kingdom, dominion, government
Proto-Brythonic	*rreɣol = rule (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ryol, reol, rhwol = rule, regulation, procedure, order, custom, pattern, government, dominion rhyolaeth, reolaeth = rule, control, management, authority, discipline rwyoli, reoli, ryoli, rhywoli = to rule, control, direct, govern roliad = rule, control, government ryolus, reolus, rheolus, rreolys = regular, orderly, disciplined, moderate, consant
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rheol [ˈr̥eː.ɔl] = rule, regulation, procedure, order, custom, pattern, government, dominion rheol(i)aeth = rule, control, management, authority, discipline rheoli = to rule, control, direct, govern rheolaidd = regular, regulated, orderly rheoliad = rule, control, government rheolus = regular, orderly, disciplined, moderate, consant
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	reol, rowl, rovle = rule, government rowler = ruler, governor
Cornish (Kernewek)	rewl, rowl = regulation, rule rewlya, rowlya = to control, regulate, rule rewlyades, rowlyades = ruler (f) rewlyas, rowlyas = ruler (m) rewlys = regular
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	regul = rule, regulation
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	reul, reol, reoll = rule, regulation reulenn = rule reulennaff = to regulate
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reol = rule, principle, regime reolennadur = regulation reolennan = to regulate reoliadur = regulation reoliata = to regulate reoliek = regular reolius = regulatory

Etymology: from Latin rēgula (rule, bar, ruler), from regō (I rule, govern, direct, guide, steer, control), from Proto-Italic *regō, from Proto-Indo-European *h₃réǵeti (to be straightening, to be setting upright), from *h₃reǵ- (to straighten, to righten) – see above [source].

Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lagh [l̪ˠɤɣ] = law laghachd [l̪ˠɤɣəxg] = legislation laghadh [l̪ˠɤɣəɣ] = legalising, legalisation laghaiche [l̪ˠɤɣɪçə] = lawyer, solicitor laghaichte [l̪ˠɤɣɪçdʲə] = legalised laghail [l̪ˠɤɣal] = legal, lawful, litigious, argumentative laghaileachd [l̪ˠɤɣaləxg] = lawfulness, legality
Manx (Gaelg)	leigh = enactment, law, respect leighagh = legal, litigious leighder = lawyer, advocate, attorney, barrister, council leighoil = lawful, legal, legislative, legitimate

Etymology: from English law, or Middle English lawe/laȝe (law, regulation, morality), or Old English lagu (law, rule, right), all of which come from Old Norse lǫg (law, rule, right), from Proto-Germanic *lagą (situation, law, a settled amount), from Proto-Indo-European *legʰ- (to lie [down]). The English words lie and lay come from the same roots [source].

Disease

27th November 2024 By Simon

Words for sickness, disease, grief and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*galarom = a distressing or painful condition, such as disease, illness, grief, sorrow
Old Irish (Goídelc)	galar = disease, pain
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	galar, galur, gallra, galara = sickness, disease, (physical) pain, mental suffering, distress, grief
Irish (Gaeilge)	galar [ˈɡɑl̪ˠəɾˠ/ˈɡɔlˠəɾˠ] = sickness, disease, affliction, misery, diseased, miserable, worthless galrach = diseased, infected, sickly, morbid galrachán = sickly creature or thing galracht = sickliness, morbidity galareagla = hypochondria galareolaí = pathologist
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	galar [gal̪ˠər] = disease, illness, malady, ailment galar-eòlas = pathology galar-sgaoilte = epidemic galarach [gal̪ˠərəx] = diseased, infective galaraich = infect
Manx (Gaelg)	gorley = disease, festering, malady darrag = oak, beam, cast (fishing), snood, hairline gorley-oaylleeaght = pathology gorlagh = diseased, infectious ym-ghorley = epidemic
Proto-Brythonic	*galar = grief, sorrow
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	galar = mourning, grief, sorrow, longing (for a deceased person), lament(ation), sighing galargyrn = horn of mourning
Welsh (Cymraeg)	galar [ˈɡalar/ˈɡaːlar] = mourning, grief, sorrow, longing (for a deceased person), lament(ation), sighing galaraeth = grief, tribulation galaru = to mourn, grieve, lament, moan, weep, wail galaraidd = mournful galargan = elegy, lament galarnadus = lamented, lamentable, mournful, plaintive
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	galar = grief, sorrow, anguish, a pang, lamentation galarow = to weep for, bewail, lament
Cornish (Kernewek)	galar [daːr / dæːr] = grief galarek = miserable galari = to grieve, lament, mourn galarow = agony
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	glachar = sorrow, afflication, pain
Breton (Brezhoneg)	glacʼhar [ˈɡlɑːɣar] = sorrow, affliction, pain glacʼhariñ [ɡlaˈɣɑː.rĩ] = to afflict, grieve glacʼharus [ɡla.ˈɣɑː.rys] = distressing, heartbreaking, desolate, painful (morally)

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰelH-ro-. Possibly related to the English word gall, and the Lithuanian word žalà (damage, harm) [source].

Proto-Celtic	*ankus = slaughter
Old Irish (Goídelc)	écht = slaying, exploit
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	écht, echt, eacht = a slaying, slaughter, pity, grief, sorrow, mourning, exploit, prowess, deed of valour
Irish (Gaeilge)	éacht [d̪ˠaɾʲ] = killing, slaying, slaughter, feat, exploit, achievement éachtach = full of prowess, powerful, wonderful, extraordinary éachtaí = wondrousness, extraordinariness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	euchd [iəxg] = exploit, feat, deed euchdach [iəxgəx] = heroic, daring euchdmhor = abounding in achievements, deeds or feats
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	aeth = pain, woe, grief, sorrow, longing
Welsh (Cymraeg)	aeth = pain, woe, grief, sorrow, longing, fear, fright, terror, shock aethlyd = terrible, dreadful, hideous, horrible, grievous, painful

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *n̥ḱtu, from *neḱ- (to perish, disappear) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include innocent, necropolis, nectar, noxious and nuisance in English, nuocere (to harm, injure, damage) in Italian, nuire (to harm, spoil) in French, anegar (to inundate, flood, drown) in Spanish, éag (Death, numbness) in Irish, angau (death, decease) in Welsh, and related words in the other Celtic languages [source].

Gritty Gravel

11th November 202411th November 2024 By Simon

Words for gravel, grit and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*griyano- = gravel
Old Irish (Goídelc)	grïan [ˈɡʲrʲi.an] = gravel, sand, river bottom, sea floor grindell = gravel, lake bed, sea bed
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	grian, grían = gravel, sand, sea or river bottom, basis, foundation, earth, land grenach, grenaig = gravel grindell, grinnell, grinneal = sea or lake bed, gravel, bedrock, foundation, floor, bottom
Irish (Gaeilge)	grean [ɟɾʲan̪ˠ] = gravel, grit, coarse sand; to engrave grian = (sea, lake, river) bottom, earth, surface grianach = gravelly greanach = gravel, gravelly spoil, gritty greanadh = engraving, shapeliness, shape, figure greanadóir = engraver greanadóireacht = engraving greanchloch = gritstone, millstone grineall = (sea, lake, river) bed, bedrock, depth, foundation
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	grean [grʲɛn̪] = (river / lake) bed, gravel, coarse sand grean-aibhne = riverbed grinneal [grʲin̪ʲəL] = gravel, grit, (river / sea) bottom grinnealach = deep, gulfy, gravelly, sabulous (sandy or gritty) grinnealachd = grittiness
Manx (Gaelg)	grineen = bead, granule, grit, pinch grineenagh = gritty, grained, grainy, granulated, granulous grineenid = grittiness
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	graean, grayan, graeeyn = gravel, coarse sand, shingle, grit, grain, granule graenauc, graeanog, graianoc = gravelly, full of gravel, harsh, grating
Welsh (Cymraeg)	graean [ˈɡreɨ̯.an / ˈɡrei̯.an] = gravel, coarse sand, shingle, grit, grain, granule grae(a)nog = gravelly, full of gravel, harsh, grating graeanu = to (spread) gravel (over), to granulate, scour, grit

Etymology: uncertain, possibly related to Proto-Celtic *grāwā (gravel, pebbles) – see below [source].

Proto-Celtic	*grāwā = gravel, pebbles
Irish (Gaeilge)	griothal = gravel, gravelly soil griothalach = gravelly, gritty
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	grothal = gravel
Proto-Brythonic	*grọw = gravel, pebbles
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	gro = gravel, shingle
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gro = gravel, shingle grodir, gro dir = gravelly land, sandy soil, grave
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gro [ɡroː] = gravel, shingle, gravelly shore, strand grobwll = gravel pit, grave grodir = gravelly land, sandy soil, grave
Old Cornish	grou = gravel, sand
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	grow = gravel, sand
Cornish (Kernewek)	grow = gravel growan = granite growanen = pebble growen = gravel
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	grean, grouan = gravel grouanec = gravelly, grave pit groanenn = piece of gravel
Breton (Brezhoneg)	grouan [ˈɡruːãn] = gravel grouanañ = to engrave grouaneg = gravelly, grave pit grouanenn = piece of gravel grouanus = gravelly

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *gʰroh₁weh₂, from *gʰreh₁w- (to grind).
Words from the same Proto-Celtic roots include grava (gravel) in Catalan, grève (flat, sandy land along the sea or a large river) in French, grava (gravel) in Spanish, and grave (gravel, shore, gravelly ground) in Occitan [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include: grit, groat, grout and gruel in English, Grieß (semolina) in German, grjót (coarse stones, rubble) in Icelandic, gryt (a badger’s sett, a fox’s den) in Swedish, riutta (reef) in Finnish, and grúodas (frozen mud or earth) in Lithuanian [source].

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	graibél = gravel, sand
Irish (Gaeilge)	gairbhéal = gravel gairbhéalach = gravelly gairbhéalta = gravelled
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	greabhal = gravel
Manx (Gaelg)	garvel = gravel
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	grafel, gravael, gravel = gravel
Welsh (Cymraeg)	graf(a)el = gravel grafelu, grafaelio = to sprinkle with gravel, make sore by chafing graf(a)eliog = gravelly

Etymology: from English gravel or Middle English gravel / gravail(le) (sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles), from Old French gravele (gravel), a diminutive of grave (gravel, seashore), from Medieval Latin grava, possibly from Gaulish grava, from Proto-Celtic grāwā (gravel, pebbles), from Proto-Indo-European *gʰroh₁weh₂, from *gʰreh₁w- (to grind) [source].

Deeply Profound

16th October 202416th October 2024 By Simon

This post peers into the depths of some deeply profound words in the Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic	dubnos (adj) = deep dubnos (noun) = world Dubnowalos = a male given name* – “world prince / chief” Dubnogenos = a male given name* – “world born / family”
Gaulish	dumnos = deep Dubnorīx = a male given name – “world king”
Primitive Irish	ᚇᚑᚋᚅᚌᚓᚅ (domngen), ᚇᚑᚋᚅᚌᚔᚅᚅ (domnginn) = male given names
Old Irish (Goídelc)	domain = deep, profound, depth(s), sea-floor fudumain = profound(ity), depth Domnall = a male given name Domaingen = a male given name
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	domain, doimin, domun, domuin = deep, profound, intense, thoughtful, depth(s) doimnigid = to deepen, lower domne, domnae = depth(s) domun = the world, the earth Domnall = a male given name
Irish (Gaeilge)	domhain [d̪ˠɑinʲ/d̪ˠoːnʲ] = depth, deep, abyss, inmost part, profound, sunken, hollow, low-pitched, far, late domhainiascaireacht = deep-sea fishing domhainmhachnamh = deep thought, deep reflection doimhneacht = depth, deep place doimhnigh = to deepen doimhniúchan = (act of) deepening domhan = earth, world Domhnall, Dónall = male given names
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	domhain [dõ.ɪn̪ʲ] = deep, profound domhaineachd [dõ.ɪn̪ʲəxg] = depth, deep, deepness, profundity domhainteachd [dõ.ɪn̪ʲdʲəxg] = abstruseness domhan [dõ.an] = universe, world Dòmhnall = a male given name
Manx (Gaelg)	dowin = deep(ly), deep-rooted, involved, low, profound, secretive, thorough, penetrating diunaghey = to deepen diunid = deep, depth, gulf, rootedness dowan = world, earth, universe, cosmos
Proto-Brythonic	duβn/dumno = deep Duβnowal = a male given name* Duβnoɣen = a male given name*
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	duuin, dofn = deep Dumnagual = a male given name
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	dowyn, duvin, dwvyn, dwfyn, dwuyn = deep, dense dyfnu, dyfnaf = to become accustomed (to), be familiar (with) dyfyn(n)der, dyuynder, dewfynder = depth(s), deepness dyfnddysc = erudite, profound, erudition, deep learning dyuynvor = deep sea, main, ocean dyfynhau = to deepen, dig, excavate, intensify Dyuynwal, Dyvynwal, Dyfynwal = male given names*
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dwfn, dyfn [dʊvn] = deep, dense, mysterious, intense, serious, profound; depth(s), deep waters, abyss, void; world, earth dyfnu = to become accustomed (to), be familiar (with), suck dyfnder = depth(s), deepness, bottom, thickness, abyss dyfnddysg = erudite, profound, erudition, deep learning dyfnfor = deep sea, main, ocean dyfnhau = to deepen, dig, excavate, intensify Dyfnaint = Devon Dyfnwal = a male given name Dyfnien = a male given name
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	down = deep, profound, low downder = depth
Cornish (Kernewek)	down = deep downder = depth downfria = to deep-fry downhe = to deepen downrewi = to deep-freeze
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	dumn = deep
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	doun, don = deep dounhat = to deepen do(u)nder = depth
Breton (Brezhoneg)	don [dɔ̃ːn] = deep, hollow (plate, dish), serious (air) donaat = to deepen donañ [ˈdɔ̃ː.nã] = to deepen donded [ˈdɔ̃n.det] = depth donder [ˈdɔ̃n.dɛr] = depth Dunvel = a male given name

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *dʰubʰnós (deep), from *dʰewbʰ- (hazy, unclear, dark, deep) [source]. Words from the same roots include deep and dip in English, tief (deep, low) in German, dopen (to dip, immerse, name) in Dutch, dùgnas (bottom, background) in Lithuanian, дно [dno] (floor, bed, bottom) in Russian, and words for black in Celtic languages

The names Donald and Dunaldur (used in Faroese) come from the Proto-Celtic name *Dubnowalos [source].

Darkness

8th October 2024 By Simon

Words for dark, gloom and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*temeslos = darkness
Old Irish (Goídelc)	teimen = dark, obscure teimel, teimne [ˈtʲeβ̃ʲel] = darkness
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	teim. tem = dark teimen, temen, teimean = dark, obscure teimel, temel, temul = darkness, gloom, dejection, stain, blemish, fault, death
Irish (Gaeilge)	teimheal = darkness, gloom, tarnish, stain, smudge, trace, sign teimhleach = dark, gloomy, tarnished, stained teimhleacht = spottiness, smudigness teimhligh = to darken, obscure, tarnish, stain teimhlitheach = tarnishing, staining teimhneach = dark, opaque teimhneacht = darkness, opacity
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	teamhall [tʲiəv] = slight swoon, stun
Proto-Brythonic	temēl(os) = darkness tɨβ̃uɨl = darkness
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	timuil = darkness, gloom
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	tywyll, tyỽyll = dark, opaque tywyllu, tyỽylla = to make or become dark, darken, make or become blind tewyllvc = to darken, grow dim tyỽyllỽc, tywyllỽc, tywylluc, tywyllwc = darkness, opacity, blindness, dim-sightedness
Welsh (Cymraeg)	tywyll [ˈtəu̯.ɨ̞ɬ/ˈtəu̯.ɪɬ] = dark, opaque, blind, dim (of sight), obscure, neutral, darkness, gloom tywyllu = to make or become dark, darken, make or become blind tywyllhau = to darken, grow dim tywyllwch [ˈtwəɬʊχ/ˈtʊɬʊχ] = darkness, opacity, blindness, dim-sightedness, eclipse
Old Cornish	tiwoulgou = darkness
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	tewal = dark, dusky, obscure tewlder, tulder = darkness tewolgow, tiwulgou = darkness, obscurity
Cornish (Kernewek)	tewal, tewl = dark, gloomy, murky, sombre tewlder = darkness, gloom tewlhe = to darken tewlwolow = dusk, half-light tewolgow = darkness
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	temoel = dark, gloomy
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	teffoal, teffal, teual = dark, gloomy teffalhat = to darken, obscure
Breton (Brezhoneg)	teñval [ˈtẽː.val] = dark, gloomy, sad, dreary, suspicious, deaf, unintelligible, incomprehensible teñvalaat [tẽvaˈlɑːt] = to darken, obscure teñvalded [tẽˈval.det] = darkness teñvalijenn [tẽ.vaˈliː.ʒɛn] = darkness, shadow teñvalus [tẽˈvaːlys] = dark, obscure, mysterious, sombre

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *témHos (darkness), from *temH- (dark) [source]. Words from the same roots include temerity, tenebrous (dark, gloomy, obscure) in English, tamsa (darkness) in Lithuanian, finster (dark, gloomy) and Dämmerung (twilight) in German, tenebre (darkness, obscurity) in Italian, and tiniebla (shadow) in Spanish [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	dorchae [ˈdorxɘ] = dark, gloomy, obscure, morose dorchaide = dark, dense dorchatus = darkness
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dorcha(e) = dark, gloomy, obscure, morose dorchaigid = to grow dark, eclipse, darken, obscure dorchatu, dorchato = darkness
Irish (Gaeilge)	dorcha [ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəxə] = darkness, obscurity, dark, obscure, blind, secretive dorchacht = dark state, darkness dorchadas = darkness, secrecy, reserve dorchaigh = to darken, become secretive, reserved
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dorch [dɔrɔx] = dark, black, dusky, mysterious, obscure dorcha [dɔrɔxə] = dark, dusky, sombre, murky dorchadas [dɔrɔxədəs] = darkness, obscurity, mysteriousness dorchaich [dɔrɔxɪç] = darken, make dark
Manx (Gaelg)	doorey = obscurity, shade, eclipse dorraghey = dark, dusk(y), gloomy, enigmatic, mysterious, obscure dorraghys = blackness, darkness, obscurity

Etymology: uncertain [source].

Pins & Needles

17th February 202417th February 2024 By Simon

Words for pin, needle and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*delgos = pin, needle
Gaulish	*dalgis = scythe
Old Irish (Goídelc)	delg [dʲerɡ] = thorn, pin, brooch, peg
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	delg = thorn, pin, brooch, peg, spike, nail, pointed implement delga, delgu = pin, peg, spike, tip, point delgach = pointed
Irish (Gaeilge)	dealg [ˈdʲal̪ˠəɡ / ˈdʲalˠəɡ] = thorn, prickle, spine, spike, pin, peg, pointed implement, brooch dealgán = knitting-needle deilgne = thorns, prickles deilgneach = thorny, prickly, barbed
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dealg [dʲal̪ˠag] = pin, skewer, knitting needle, prick(le) dealg-fighidh = knitting needle dealgan = spindle, small pin, skewer dealg brodaidh = cattle prod dealgach [dʲal̪ˠagəx] = prickly, stinging dealganach [dʲal̪ˠaganəx] = pertaining to or abounding in spindles, small pins or skewers
Manx (Gaelg)	jialg = broochpin, needle, prick(le), quill, spine, thorn, pin jialg broghil = brooch jialg fuilt = hairpin jialg oashyr = knitting needle jialgagh = prickly, spiniferous, spiny, thorny jialgaghey = to pin, prickle, pinning
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	dala = sting
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dala [ˈdala] = sting, bite
Old Cornish (Cernewec)	delc(h) = jewel, necklace
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	delc = necklace
Cornish (Kernewek)	delk = necklace

Etymology from Proto-Indo-European *dʰelg- (sting). Words from the same root include dálkur (spine of a fish, knife, dagger, [newspaper] column) in Icelandic, dilgus (prickly) in Lithuanian, falce (scythe, sickle) in Italian, hoz (sickle) in Spanish, and falcate (shaped like a sickle), falcifer (sickle-bearing, holding a scythe) in English [source].

Words from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Gaulish *dalgis (scythe) and Latin *daculum (scythe) , possibly include dall (mowing, billhook) in Catalan, dalle (scythe) in Spanish, and dalha (scythe) in Occitan (Languedoc) [source].

The English word dagger, and related words in other languages, such as daga (dagger) in Spanish, and Degen (rapier, épée) in German, might come from the same roots [source].

Proto-Celtic	*ber = (cooking) spin
Old Irish (Goídelc)	bi(u)r [bʲir] = stake, spit, point, spear, spike berach = pointed, sharp
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	bir = stake, spit, point, spear, spike biraid = to pierce biraigthe = sharpened, pointed birda = pointed, sharp birín = little spike, sharp point, dart, little spear
Irish (Gaeilge)	bior [ˈbʲɨ̞ɾˠ] = pointed rod or shaft, spit, spike, point biorach = pointed, sharp bioraigh = to point, sharpen biorán = pin, hand (of clock) bioranta = sharp biorú = pointing, sharpening
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	bior [bir] = prickle, thorn, point, pointed object, knitting needle biorachadh [birəxəɣ] = sharpening, making pointed, staring biorag [birag] = small thorn or prickle, spiteful sharp-tongued woman biorach [birəx] = pointed, sharp, piercing, prickly bioraich [birɪç] = sharpen, make pointed, stare
Manx (Gaelg)	birr, byr = point, spit birragh, byrragh = pointed, scathing, sharp, spiky, tapered, prickly birranagh = pointed, sharp birraghey = to sharpen, taper, tone up
Proto-Brythonic	ber = (cooking) spit
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	bêr, ber = spear, lance, pike, spit, skewer beraid = as much as can be held on a spit
Welsh (Cymraeg)	bêr [beːr] = spear, lance, pike, spit, skewer ber(i)af, berio, beru = to spit (meat), impale, stab with a spear beriad = as much as can be held on a spit bergi = turnspit (dog) bernod = dagger, obelisk
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	ber, bêr = spit, lance, spear
Cornish (Kernewek)	berya = to stab, run through
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	ber, bèr, bir = (roasting) spit
Breton (Brezhoneg)	ber [beːr] = spindle, point, spike beriad = pin berian = skewer

Etymology from Proto-Indo-European *gʷéru (spit, spear) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include verrocchio (olive oil press) in Italian, verrou (bolt, lock) in French, cerrojo (bolt, latch) in Spanish [source].

Proto-Celtic	snātantā = needle (?) snātos = thread
Old Irish (Goídelc)	snáthat = needle snáith = thread
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	snáthat, snāthad, snathat = needle snáithe = thread
Irish (Gaeilge)	snáthaid [ˈsˠn̪ˠɑːhəd̪ˠ] = needle, snáthadóir = needle-maker snáth = thread, yarn, web
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	snàthad [sn̪ˠaː.əd] = needle, pointer (on a dial) snàthadair [sn̪ˠaː.ədɪrʲ] = needle-maker snàthadalan [sn̪ˠaː.ədəl̪ˠan] = needlecase snàthadh [sn̪ˠaː.əɣ] = threading, stringing snàthadag [sn̪ˠaː.ədag] = sting snàth [sn̪ˠaː] = thread, yarn
Manx (Gaelg)	snaid = needle, pointer, indicator, index snaid whaaley = sewing needle snaidagh = needle-like snaidey = knit obbyr snaidey = needlework snaih, snaie = line, thread, yarn, worm, netting
Old Welsh (Kymraec)	notuid = needle, pin
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	notwyd, nottwyd, nodwydd = needle, pin
Welsh (Cymraeg)	nodwydd [ˈnɔdwɨ̞ð/ˈnɔdʊi̯ð] = needle, pin, pointer, dial nodwyddaf, nodwyddo = to sew, stitch, inject, prick nodwyddiad = acupuncture nodwyddig = small needle nodwyddwaith = needlework nodwyddwr = needlemaker, pinmaker, sewer, stitcher, tailor
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	nadedh, nadzhedh = needle noden = thread, yarn
Cornish (Kernewek)	naswydh, najedh = needle neusen, neujen = thread, yarn neusenna = to thread
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	nadoez, nados, nadoz = sewing needle neut, neud = thread
Breton (Brezhoneg)	nadoez [beːr] = needle, hand, pointer, spire nadoezenn = (clock) hand nadoezier = needle maker neud = thread, filaments, net, algae

Etymology from Proto-Indo-European *(s)neh₁- (to spin, sew) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include needle, nerve, neuron, sinew and snood in English [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Muddy Mires

15th February 2024 By Simon

Words for mud and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*latyos = moist
Old Irish (Goídelc)	lathach [dʲerɡ] = mud, mire
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lathach, laithech, lathaig = mire, puddle, quagmire, morass
Irish (Gaeilge)	lathach [ˈl̪ˠɑhəx / l̪ˠaiç] = mud, slush, slime
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lathach [l̪ˠa.əx] = mire, ooze, sludge, quicksand lathach-mhòine = peat-bog lathach sàile = saltmarsh lathachach [l̪ˠa.əxəx] = muddy, oozy, sludgy lathachail [l̪ˠa.əxal] = muddy, oozy, sludgy lathadh = besemearing, (be)numbing, heat (in cats)
Manx (Gaelg)	laagh = mire, mud laagh vog = sludge laaghagh = muddy, sludgy, slushy laaghan = muddy place, slough
Proto-Brythonic	*llėd = mud
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llaid = mud, mire, dirt, clay, slime, ooze lleidyawc = muddy, clayey, miry, oozy, slimy
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llaid [ɬai̯d] = mud, mire, dirt, clay, slime, ooze, quagmire, quicksand, dregs lleidfa = muddy or clayey place lleidfysgaf, lleidfysgu = to, knead, work clay, bespatter with mud or dirt, bedraggle, bemire lleidiaf, lleidio = to turn into mud or clay, become sodden lleidiog = muddy, clayey, miry, oozy, slimy lleidiogaf, lleidiogi = to become muddy or miry lleidiogrwydd = muddiness, ooziness, turbidity lleidiol = full of mud, muddy, miry, clayey
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	lued, luth, lyys, lys, lŷs = mud, mire, dirt, filth luedic = miry, filthy, stinking lyys haal = salt-marsh
Cornish (Kernewek)	leys [lɛɪz] = mud, slime leysek = mire
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	lec’hid = slime, silt
Breton (Brezhoneg)	lec’hid = slime, silt lec’hidadur = siltation lec’hidan, lec’hidañ = to silt up, become gelatinous, viscous lec’hideg = mudflat lec’hidus = muddy

Etymology from Proto-Indo-European *lat- (damp, wet). Words from the same roots include latex in English, latãkas (chute, gutter, duct) in Lithuanian, and lag (to wet, moisten) in Albanian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	láp = mud, mire, sin, vice
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	láip [l͈aːb] = mud, mire, sin, vice
Irish (Gaeilge)	láib [l̪ˠɑːbʲ/l̪ˠæːbʲ] = mud, mire; to muddy, spatter caoch láibe = mole oitir láibe = mud-bank
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	làb [l̪ˠaːb] = mire, mud, muddy puddle, day’s labour làbach [l̪ˠaːbəx] = marsh, swamp làbachas [l̪ˠaːbəxəs] = swampiness, bogginess làban [l̪ˠaːban] = mire, mud, muddy place, dirty work, drudgery, wet and muddy person làbanachadh [l̪ˠaːbanəxəɣ] = smearing, daubing, dirtying, wallowing, bedraggling, drenching làbrach [l̪ˠaːbarəx] = miry, muddy, dirty, dirty/unkempt person
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	loob = slime, sludge
Cornish (Kernewek)	loub = slime, sludge louba = to lubricate

Etymology: probably related to lathach [source].

Proto-Celtic	*kʷrīyess = clay
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cré [kʲrʲeː] = clay, earth
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cré, cre = clay, earth créda, criadta, criata, creodae = clayey, earthen, fictile (pliable, moldable)
Irish (Gaeilge)	cré = clay, earth, dust créachadh = (act of) earthing, moulding créafóg = clay, earth crécholúr = clay pigeon cré-earra = earthenware créúil = clayey, earthy
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	criadh [krʲiəɣ] = clay criadgadair [krʲia.ədɪrʲ] = potter criadhadaireachd [krʲia.ədɪrʲəxg] = pottery
Manx (Gaelg)	cray = ash, clay, pipe clay crayee = ceramic, earthen crayoil = clayey, earthy
Proto-Brythonic	*prið [ˈpriːð] = clay, mud, earth
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	prid, pridd = soil, earth, dust, ground, clay, mortar, plaster priddo = to cover with earth, bury pridell, priddell = clod, sod, dust, soil priddled, priddlyd = earthy, earthen, dirty, dusty,
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pridd [priːð] = soil, earth, dust, ground, clay, mortar, plaster priddach = soil, earth, clay, earthenware pridd(i)af, pridd(i)o = to cover with earth, bury, plaster, daub priddawr = potter pridd-dom = dirt, mud, clay priddell = clod, sod, dust, soil, grave, potsherd, brick, tile priddfaen = brick, (earthenware) tile for making bricks priddl(l)yd = earthy, earthen, dirty, dusty, uncouth priddwr = mason, plasterer, burier
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pri, pry, prî = mould, earth, clay prian, prían = clayey ground
Cornish (Kernewek)	pri = clay, mud priek = clayey prien = clay ground priweyth = pottery priweythor, priweythores = potter priweythva = clay-works, pottery
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	pri = clay, mudt
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	pry = clay, mud
Breton (Brezhoneg)	pri [priː] = clay, mud, mortar priaj = ceramic prian, priañ = to coat with clay priasell = waste, quagmire priasellek = full of clay mud prieg = clayey, muddy

Etymology possibly from Proto-Indo-European *krey- (to siftm separate, divide). Words from the same roots include latex in English, latãkas (chute, gutter, duct) in Lithuanian, and lag (to wet, moisten) in Albanian [source].

Middle Breton (Brezonec)	fanc, fancq, fang, fank = mud, excrement
Breton (Brezhoneg)	fank [ˈfãŋk] = mud, excrement fankan, fankañ = to poop fankeg = muddy

Etymology from Norman fanque (mud) [source] from Old French fange (mud, addle, mire), from Vulgar Latin *fanga/*fangus (mud), possibly from Frankish, from Proto-Germanic *fanją (swamp, fen). The French words fange (filth, mire, debauchery) and fagne (marshland, fen), and the Catalan word fang (mud) come from the same roots [source].

Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llaka, lacca, llacca = mud, sludge, mire, dirt, muck, puddle, filth, slome
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llaca [ɬaka] = mud, sludge, mire, dirt, muck, puddle, filth, slime llaceilyd = muddy, miry, dirty

Etymology from Middle English lake/laca (lake, stream; ditch, drain, sewer), from Old French lac (lake) or Latin lacus (lake, basin, tank), to-Italic *lakus (lake), from Proto-Indo-European *lókus (pond, pool) [source].

Proto-Celtic	*lutā = dirt, mud
Gaulish	*lutos = swamp
Celtiberian	*lutā = swamp
Old Irish (Goídelc)	loth [ˈloθ] = mire, mud, swamp, marsh
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	loth, lath = mud, mire, quagmire, marsh
Irish (Gaeilge)	lodair = to cover with mud, muddy, to wallow in mire, grovel lodán = stagnant pool, puddle lodar = miry place, slough, soft, flabby person lodartha = muddy, slushy, slobby, soft, flabby, grovelling, abject, base, vulgar lodarthacht = muddiness, slushiness, softness, flabbiness, abjectness, baseness, vulgarity
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lod [l̪ˠɔd] = pool, pond, marsh lodagan = small pool of water lodan = puddle, small pool, small marsh

Etymology from Proto-Indo-European *lew- (dirt, mud) [source].

Lutetia, the Gallo-Roman town founded in 52 BC that became Paris, gets it’s name from the Gaulish word *lutos (swamp) [source]. It was known as Lutetia Parisiorum by the Romans.

Worms & Maggots

18th December 2023 By Simon

Today we’re looking at the words for worm, maggot and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷrimis = worm
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cruim [kruṽʲ] = maggot, worm crumdoma = maggot heap
Middle Irish (Gaoidhleag)	cruim, crúim = worm, maggot crumach = full of reptiles crumdoma = dunghill cromóc = maggot
Irish (Gaeilge)	cruimh = maggot, larva, grub, tiny insect, worm crumhóg = maggot cruimheach = maggoty cruimheachán = venemous person
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cnuimh [krɯ̃ĩv] = maggot, grub, worm cnuimheach [krɯ̃ĩvəx] = maggoty cnuimheag [krɯ̃ĩvag] = maggot, grub, worm cnuimhneag [krɯ̃ĩvn̪ˠʲag] = maggot, worm
Manx (Gaelg)	crooag = (flesh) worm, grub, maggot, worm crooagagh = maggoty, wormy
Proto-Brythonic	*prɨβ̃ [ˈprɨβ̃] = worm
Old Welsh	prem = insect, fly, larva, maggot, grub, worm
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pryuet, pryf = insect, fly, larva, maggot, grub, worm pryuyedic = abounding in / infested with worms or maggots
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pryf [prɨːv/priːv] = insect, fly, larva, maggot, grub, worm pryfedaf, pryfedu, pryfedo = to breed worms of maggots, to become infested with worms or maggots pryfediad = worm or maggot infestation pryfedig = wormeaten, maggoty pryfeteg = entomology pryfiedig = abounding in / infested with worms or maggots
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pref, prêv, pryf = any small animal, a vermin, an insect, a worm, a reptile
Cornish (Kernewek)	pryv, prev = crawling animal, grub, insect, worm, weevil pryv del = caterpillar pryv prenn woodworm pryvladher = insecticide
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	preff, preuet, prenvv = worm
Breton (Brezhoneg)	preñv = worm preñvedik = vermiculated preñvek = vermicular, wormlike, wormy eneppreñveg, eneppreñvek = wormable

Etymology: from PIE *kʷŕ̥mis (worm) [source]. Words from the same root include cirmenis (maggot, grub) in Latvian, kirmis (worm) in Lithuanian, käärme (snake) in Finnish, کرم (kerm – worm) in Persian, and červ (worm, maggot) in Czech and Slovak [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	dorb = worm, larva
Middle Irish (Gaoidhleag)	dorb = small insect or worm
Irish (Gaeilge)	doirb [kɑbʲ/kabʲ] = water beelte doirbeach = infested with water beetles
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	doirb [dɤrʲɤb] = unspecific term for a small/tiny/insignificant creature (e.g. minnow, worm, leech, small person)
Manx (Gaelg)	durrag = cabbage worm, larva of cabbage moth

Etymology: unknown

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Lexicon Cornu-britannicum: A Dictionary of the Ancient Celtic Language of Cornwall, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, Le dictionnaire diachronique du breton, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Facing Opposition

10th November 202311th November 2023 By Simon

Words for face and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*gnūstis = face
Old Irish (Goídelc)	gnúis [ɡnuːsʲ] = face
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	gnúis = face, countenance, disc (of sun or moon), aspect, kind, form, species dognúisach = ill-featured, ill-favoured
Irish (Gaeilge)	gnúis [ɡn̪ˠuːʃ/ɡɾˠuːʃ] = face, mien, countenance, sour expression, frown, aspect, kind, form gnúiseach = well-favoured, good-looking. gnúiseachán = sour-faced person. gnúisgheal = bright-faced gnúis-searbh = sour-faced
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	gnùis [gruːʃ] = face, countenance, visage gnùis-dhreach = aspect gnùis-bhrat = veil samhla-gnùis = smiley ☺️, emoticon maise-gnùis = cosmetics ruadhadh-gnùis = blush
Manx (Gaelg)	grooish = countenance, visage, aspect grooish-volley = deceit, deceive geyre-ghrooishagh = sharp-faced sharroo-ghrooishagh = vinegar-faced
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gnis = jaw, chin, countenance, face
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gnis [miːl] = jaw, chin, countenance, face gnisiaf, gnisio = to low, neigh, sigh, pant, groan, grumble
Cornish (Kernewek)	greuv = face, front

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *ǵneh₃- (to recognise, know) [source]. Words from the same roots include cognition, cunning, gnome, ignorant, know, noble and uncouth in English [source].

Proto-Celtic	*enekʷos = face
Old Irish (Goídelc)	enech = face, honour, reputation
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	enech, ainech = face, front, opposite, against, in opposition to enechgris = face-flushing enechlóg = honour-price
Irish (Gaeilge)	oineach = honour, good name, reputation, generosity, hospitality, bounty, favour oineachúil = generous, good-natured eineach = face (literary) eineachlann = ‘honour-price’, proportionate compensation, satisfaction for injury, etc eineachras = safeguard, protection
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	eanach [ɛnəx] = honour, praise
Proto-Brythonic	*ėnib = face
Old Welsh	enep = face
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	wynep, wyneb, vynep = face wynebiat, wnepiat, wynepiat = surace, facing, behaviour, aspect wynebion, wynebyon = surface, scum, froth,
Welsh (Cymraeg)	wyneb [ˈwɨnɛb / ˈwɨnab] = face, countenance, expression, grimace, surface, area, front, side, honour, respect, status, effrontery, impudence, audacity, cheek wynebaf, wynebu = to face, look towards, confront, oppose, encourage, support (g)wynebiad = surace, facing, behaviour, aspect wynebion = surface, scum, froth, head (of beer), cream (g)wynebol = honourable, worthy, facial, front, facing, promising, favourable, handsome, beautiful
Old Cornish	eneb = face
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	enep, enap = face, countenance, page (of a book)
Cornish (Kernewek)	enep = face, surface enebi = to face, oppose enebieth = opposition
Old Breton	enep = face
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	enep = face, resistance, opposition, opposite
Breton (Brezhoneg)	eneb [ˈẽːnep] = face, opposite, honour enebenn [e.ˈneː.bɛn] = upper, front, page eneberezh = opposition enebiñ = to oppose

Etymology: from the PIE *h₁enih₃kʷos (face), from animālis (animate, living), from *h₁én (in) and *h₃ókʷs (eye), and okno (window) in Czech [source].

Words from the same roots include eye in English, acs (eye, vision, attention) in Latvian, akis (eye, loop) in Lithuanian [source].

Proto-Celtic	*antonos = forehead
Old Irish (Goídelc)	étan = brow, forehead
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	étan, édan = front, brow, forehead étanán = frontlet
Irish (Gaeilge)	éadan [ˈeːd̪ˠən̪ˠ/ˈeːd̪ˠənˠ] = front, face, flat surface, facet, table, end éadána = timid, diffident éadánacht = timidity, diffidence éadanchlár = fascia
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	aodann [ɯːdən̪ˠ] = face, front, dial, side aodannach [ɯːdən̪ˠəx] = little face, mask, frontispiece aodann-clò = typeface aodann-coimheach = mask aodann creige = rockface, cliff-face
Manx (Gaelg)	eddin = face, facade, feature, front, apron, dial, impudence, cheek eddinagh = facial

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *h₂ent- (face, forehead, front). Words from the same roots include answer, end in English, and anë (side, edge, verge, brink) in Albanian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	agad [ˈaɣəð] = face, honour, surface
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	agad, aiged = face, countenance, surface, front
Irish (Gaeilge)	aghaidh [əiɟ/ai/əi̯] = face, front, aspect, dial (of clock), obverse (of coin) aghaidhbhéasach = civil-looking aghaidh-dhána = bold-faced
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	aghaidh [ɤː.ɪ] = face, visage, facade, front, facing, cheek, impudence, nerve aghaidheachd [ɤː.ɪjəxg] = resistance aghaidhich = oppose, face, confront, affront aghaidhichte = opposed, opposing, fronting, facing, confronted
Manx (Gaelg)	oai = countenance oaie = dial, exposure, facade, face, facial, front, frontage oaieagh = blasphemous, sepulchral

Etymology: uncertain, possibly related to the Old Irish aigid (to drive), from Proto-Celtic *ageti (to drive), from Proto-Indo-European *h₂éǵeti (to be driving) [source].

Proto-Celtic	drikā = face, front ɸaredrikā = face, front
Old Irish (Goídelc)	drech = face
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	drech, dreach = face, countenance, front, surface drechach = fair, comely, graceful, shapely
Irish (Gaeilge)	dreach [dʲɾʲax] = facial appearance, look, expression, aspect, face, surface dreachadh =delineation, portrayal, make-up dreachadóir = delineator dreachúil = good-looking, comely
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dreach [drɛx] = figure, form, shape, appearance, complexion dreachmhor [drɛxvər] = comely, handsome, a healthy complexion dreachadh [drɛxəɣ] = portraying, shaping, adorning dreachail [drɛxal] = handsome, personable dreachalachd [drɛxəl̪ˠəxg] = handsomeness
Manx (Gaelg)	dreagh = expression
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	dyrch = face drychiolaeth = apparition, ghost, spectre, phantom edrich, edrych = to look, view, observe
Welsh (Cymraeg)	drych [drɨːχ / driːχ] = mirror, looking-glass, reflection, example, magnifying-glass, glasses, countenance, appearance, aspect drachaf, drychu = to mirror, see, make apparent drychiolaeth = apparition, ghost, spectre, phantom edrych = regard, appearance edrych(af) = to look, view, observe, watch, search
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	derch = shape, aspect, appearance

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *dr̥ḱ-eh₂ from *derḱ- (to see) [source]. Words from the same roots include dragon, drake and tarragon in English [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Lexicon Cornu-britannicum: A Dictionary of the Ancient Celtic Language of Cornwall, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, Le dictionnaire diachronique du breton, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Celtiadur

Exploring connections between Celtic languages

Category: Lithuanian (lietuvių kalba)

Pursuing Followers

Dutiful Laws

Disease

Gritty Gravel

Deeply Profound

Darkness

Pins & Needles

Muddy Mires

Worms & Maggots

Facing Opposition