Nights

20th March 2025 By Simon

A post about words for night, evening and related things in Celtic languages, and related words in other languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	adaig [ˈaðəɣʲ] = night
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	adaig, aidche, oidche, adhaigh = night
Irish (Gaeilge)	oíche [ˈiːhɪ/ˈĩːçə/ˈɪhə] = night, period of darkness, night-time, nightfall, eve anoíche = late hour of night meánoíche = midnight oíchí = nocturnal, nightly Oíche Shamhna = Halloween Oíche Nollag = Christmas Eve oíche chinn bliana = New Year’s eve
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	oidhche [ɤ̃ĩçə] = night oidhcheach [ɤ̃ĩçəx] = nightly, nocturnal oidhcheil [ɤ̃ĩçal] = nightly Oidhche Shamhna = Halloween Oidhche Nollaige = Christmas Eve oidhche Challainn [ɤ̃çəˈxal̪ɪn̪ʲ] = New Year’s eve adhaigh†, adhuigh† = night
Manx (Gaelg)	oie [ɛi/iː] = night, eve, night time, nocturnal, evening oieagh = nocturnal oieoil = nightly Oie Houney = Halloween, Hop tu Naa Oie Nollick = Christmas Eve Oie Nollick Veg = New Year’s eve
Proto-Brythonic	*exuɨð = night (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	hecuuyt, echwyd, echwyt = the third hour of the day (9am), interval between 9am and 12 noon, noon, time of the day when cattle etc. shelter from the heat
Welsh (Cymraeg)	echwydd [ˈhɨ̞ðɨ̞ɡl / ˈhɪðɪɡl] = the third hour of the day (9am), interval between 9am and 12 noon, noon, time of the day when cattle etc. shelter from the heat, afternoon, evening, close of day, autumn
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	ewhe = evening
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	ehoaz, ehoa = cattle rest at midday, resting place, shade for animals, rest ehoazaff = to day a midday rest
Breton (Brezhoneg)	ec’hoaz [ˈhyː(z)il] = midday rest, siesta ec’hoazañ = to take a midday rest ec’hoaziad = siesta ec’hoaziata = to take a siesta

Etymology: uncertain. The Goidelic words, and maybe the Brythonic words, are possibly related to āter (dull black, dark, gloomy, sad) in Latin [source], which comes from Proto-Italic *ātros (black), from Proto-Indo-European *h₂eh₁ter- (fire) [source].

Words from the same roots may include atrocious and atrocity in English, âtre (hearth, matte black) in French, atro (dark, black, bleak, brooding) in Italian, and atro (jet-black, bad, evil, sinister) in Portuguese [source].

Proto-Celtic	noxt-stu- = night (?) sindai noxtē = tonight
Gaulish	nox = night (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	nocht = night innocht = tonight
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	nocht = night innocht = tonight
Irish (Gaeilge)	anocht [əˈn̪ˠɔxt̪ˠ] = tonight
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	a-nochd [əˈn̪ˠɔ̃xg] = tonight
Manx (Gaelg)	noght = tonight
Proto-Brythonic	*hanoɨθ = tonight
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	nos = night henoid = tonight
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	nos = night nosa, nossi, nosi = to become night, fall (of night) nossavl, nossol, nosawl = nightlike, nocturnal, nightly nos hon, noshon, nosson = evening, night nosweith, nossweith, noswaith = evening, night heno = tonight
Welsh (Cymraeg)	nos [noːs] = night, evening, darkness (of night), vigil nosi, nosáu = to become night, fall (of night) nosaidd = nightlike nosol = nightlike, nocturnal, nightly noson = evening, night noswaith = evening, night heno = tonight
Old Cornish	nos = night
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	nos, nôs = night haneth = tonight
Cornish (Kernewek)	nos = night nosweyth = night-time, at night noswiker = smuggler haneth = tonight
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	nos = night
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	nos = night fenozh, fennos, fenoz, fin-noz = tonight antronoz all = the day after tomorrow
Breton (Brezhoneg)	noz [ˈnoːs] = night noziñ [ˈnoːzĩ] = to get dark nozvezh [ˈnoz.vɛs] = overnight stay, duration of one night nozik = a little dark henoazh = tonight eil tronoz = the day after tomorrow

Etymology: either from Latin nox, from Proto-Italic *nokts (night), from Proto-Indo-European *nókʷts (night). Or via Proto-Celtic *noxs (night), from the same PIE root [source].

Words from the same roots include night in English, Nacht (night) in German, ochtend (morning) in Dutch, otta (dawn, early morning) in Swedish, ακτίνα (aktína – light ray, sunbeam) in Greek [source]

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Geriafurch, TermOfis

Satisfying Pleasure

3rd March 2025 By Simon

Words for satisfaction, pleasure, gratitude and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*bodyā = satisfaction, pleasure
Old Irish (Goídelc)	buide [buːa̯ðʲ] = benefit, gift, profit, quality, triumph, victory, virtue búadach = gifted, triumphant, victorious
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	buide, buidhe = good-will, favour, gratification, gratitude, thanks, grateful, gratified, glad buidech, buidheach = well-disposed, pleased, satisfied, sated, grateful, thankful, pleasing, gratifying, pleasant buidechus, buidheachas = ripeness, thanks
Irish (Gaeilge)	buí [bˠiː/bˠiə] = victory, truimph; gift, talent; virtue merit; special quality buíoch = thankful, pleased, satisfied buíochas = thanks, gratitude buíochasaigh = to thank
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	buidhe [bujə] = gratitude, gratification, thanks, glad, grateful, fortunate, lucky buaidheach [bujəx] = grateful, thankful, satisfied, content, sated, fed up buaidheachas [bujəxəs] = gratitude, thanks, thanksgiving, acknowledgement (of an achievement) buaidheach = victorious, effective
Manx (Gaelg)	booise = gratitude, thanks, to content, please bwooisagh = thankful bwooisal = gratitude, pleasing, thankful booisal = acceptable, obliged, pleasing, thankful cur bwooise da = to thank
Proto-Brythonic	*boð = (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	bódláún = contented, satisfied, pleased
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	bod, bot, bodd = liking, contentment, satisfaction, favour, pleasure bodhgar = satisfying, pleasing, agreeable, pleasant boddhan = to satisfy, make contented, please, gratify, be contented botlaỽn, bodlavn, bodlawn = contented, satisfied, pleased
Welsh (Cymraeg)	bodd [boːð] = liking, contentment, satisfaction, favour, pleasure, wish, desire, will, goodwill, approval, consent, permission boddgar = satisfying, pleasing, agreeable, pleasant, enticing, easily satisfied or pleased, contented boddgarwch = pleasure, agreeableness, delight, easiness to satisfy or please, contentment boddhad = satisfaction, contentment, pleasure, enjoyment, agreeableness, delight, atonement, willingness, complacency boddhadau = to satisfy, make contented, please, gratify, be contented boddio = to satisfy, please, make contented, be satisfied bodlon [ˈbɔdlɔn] = contented, satisfied, pleased
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	bodh, bôdh = will, good pleasure
Cornish (Kernewek)	bodh = consent, will, wish bodhegi = to volunteer bodhek, bodheges = volunteer, voluntary, willing bodhel = consensual
Old Breton	bod = satisfaction, contentment
Breton (Brezhoneg)	boz = satisfaction, contentment (rare) bozek = satisfied bozleun = satisfied, full of satisfaction

Etymology: possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *bʰed- (to improve, make better), or from PIE *bʰewdʰ- (to be awake, to be aware) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include bet, better and boot in English, besser (better) in German, betur (better) in Icelandic, and baat (profit, advantage) in Dutch [source].

Cressy

7th February 2025 By Simon

Words for cress, watercress, and related things in Celtic languages.

Watercress is a perennial European herb, Nasturtium officinale, that grows in freshwater streams; used in salads and as a garnish, or a similar plant, Nasturtium microphyllum [source].

Cress is a plant of various species, chiefly cruciferous. The leaves have a moderately pungent taste, and are used as a salad and antiscorbutic. [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*beruros = watercress
Gaulish	berula = cress
Old Irish (Goídelc)	birar = watercress
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	birar, biror, bilar, bilur = watercress biolar Mhuire = brooklime biolar tragha = scurvy-grass birarán = clean-topped cress
Irish (Gaeilge)	biolar [ˈbʲul̪ˠəɾˠ/ˈbʲɨlˠəɾˠ] = cress, watercress biolrach = cressy
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	biolair [bjul̪ʲɪrʲ] = cress, especially watercress biolaireach = pertaining to or abouding in watercress
Manx (Gaelg)	burley = cress, watercress
Proto-Brythonic	*berur = cress (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	berwr, berỽr, berw = cress, watercress
Welsh (Cymraeg)	berwr, berw = cress, watercress
Old Cornish	beler = watercress
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	beler = watercress
Cornish (Kerneweg)	beleren = cress beleren dhowr = watercress
Old Breton (Brethonog)	beror = cress, watercress
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	beler = cress, watercress
Breton (Brezhoneg)	beler [ˈbeː.lɛr] = cress, watercress belereg / belerid = watercress bed belerek = abounding in watercress

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic berus (spring, well), from Proto-Indo-European *bʰrewh₁- (to boil, brew), or from PIE *bʰréh₁wr̥ (spring, source). Words from the same Proto-Celtic roots, via Gaulish *berulā and Latin berula (a herb: bittercress or waterparsnip) include berle (water parsnip) in French, Berle (water parsnip) in German, and berro (cress, watercress) in Spanish and Galician [source].

Ropes & Strings

28th January 2025 By Simon

Words for rope, cord, string and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	tantus, tantā = cord, string
Old Irish (Goídelc)	tét [tʲeːd] = cord, rope, string
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	tét, téd, tet [tʲeːd] = rope, cord, string, a spider’s thread tétaire = harper, lute-player tétán = rope, cord téitimnech = the crack, creaking of the ropes
Irish (Gaeilge)	téad [tʲiad̪ˠ/tʲeːd̪ˠ] = rope, cable, string, chord, tether téadach = stringed téadaire = roper, corder, player of stringed instrument téadaireacht = (act of) playing on stringed instrument téadán = short rope, string, cord, line téadchleasaí = rope-walker, rope-dancer téadleimneach = (act of) skipping téadra = cordage
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	teud [tʲiad] = cord, string teudach [tʲiadəx] = stringed teudachadh [tʲiədəxəɣ] = (act of) stringing, tethering teudag [tʲiədag] = little string/cord, fibre teudagach [tʲiədagəx] = fibrous, fibery, abounding in fibres teudaichte [tʲiadɪçdʲə] = stringed, tethered
Manx (Gaelg)	tead, tedd, teidd = rope, string, line, guy teaddey = rope teaddaght = cordage
Proto-Brythonic	*tant = string (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	tantou = string
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	tant = string, line, cord, tendril tennyn = tether, leash, lead, halter, string, cord, rope, noose, snare
Welsh (Cymraeg)	tant [tant] = string (of a musical instrument), line, cord, tendril, bowstring, nerve, sinew, tendon tantio = to string (a musical instrument) tantiwr = fisherman who stands on the shore holding one end of a salmon net, while two others throw the net into the water from a boat tantor = player of stringed instruments, harpist tennyn = tether, leash, lead, halter, string, cord, rope, noose, snare
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	tantou = strings
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	tant = string
Breton (Brezhoneg)	tant [tãnt] = string

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *tén-tu-s/ *tn̥-téw-s, from *ten- (to stretch, extend) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include: ndej (to stretch) in Albanian, tenet (an opinion, belief, principle) in English, dehnen (to stretch) in German, tenere (to hold, keep, sustain) in Italian, tit (to wind, reel, coil, wrap) in Latvian, tener (to have, possess, hold, grasp) in Spanish, and tänja (to stretch, bend) in Swedish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*lomanā = rope, thong
Old Irish (Gaídelc)	loman = cord, rope
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	loman, lomna = cord, rope, thong, string, leash, bridle, halter
Irish (Gaeilge)	lomhain = rope, halter, leash
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lomhainn [l̪ˠõ.ɪn̪ʲ] = leash, lead, pack, band, gang
Manx (Gaelg)	louyn = rope er louyn = along, by hand, on a rope
Proto-Brythonic	*lloβ̃an [be̝ˈrɨːd] = rope, string
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llyfan = string, cord, thin rope
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llyfan = string, cord, thin rope
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	lovan = rope, cord, string lovannan = a small rope, cord
Cornish (Kernewek)	lovan = rope, lasso lovan dynn/dydn = tightrope lovan lemmel = skipping rope
Middle Breton	louffan = strap, belt
Breton (Brezhoneg)	louan [ˈluːãn] = strap, belt louaneg = slender (long-legged), clumsy louangen = skinny, without energy

Etymology: unknown, possibly from a non-Indo-European substrate language [source].

Proto-Celtic	*souggo = (?)
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	súagán, súgán = (straw) rope
Irish (Gaeilge)	súgán = (straw) rope, strawmat, lifeless, inert, spinless person súgánach = confused
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sùgan [suːgan] = straw rope, horse’s collar (filled with straw)
Manx (Gaelg)	suggane = twisted straw rope

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *sew- (to bend, cut). The Scots word suggan (light saddle, bedroll), and the Hiberno-English word sugan (a wooden chair with a seat made from woven straw or twine stretched over the frame) both come from the same roots via Irish, as does the word soogan (a bedroll) in American English [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	súainem = cord, rope, string, thong
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	súainem, súaineamh, súainimh = cord, rope, string, thong, course (of river)
Irish (Gaeilge)	suaineamh = (javelin) cord, amentum (catkin) (literary)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sìoman [ʃiəman] = simmen, rope made from plant fibres (esp. straw, but also coir, heather, grass, twigs or rushes)
Manx (Gaelg)	saineen = cord, thong

Etymology: from Old Norse síma (cord, rope) [source], from Proto-Germanic *sīmô (rope, cord), from Proto-Indo-European *sh₂éy-mn̥/*sh₂i-mén-s, from *sh₂ey- (to bind, fetter) [source].

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	róp = rope
Irish (Gaeilge)	rópa [ˈɾˠoːpˠə]= rope rópa = rope rópadóir = rope-maker rópadóireacht = rope-making, rope-walking, rope-climbing, working with ropes
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ròp, ròpa [r̪ˠɔːhbə] = rope, bundle of seaweed ròpach [r̪ˠɔːhbəx] = abounding in ropes, tangled up, jumbled, untidy, messed up, abounding in tall tales/yarns ròpadh [r̪ˠɔːhbəɣ] = (act of)roping, fastening with a rope, entangling ròpair [r̪ˠɔːhbɛrʲ] = auctioneer ròpaireachd [̪rˠɔːbɛrʲəxg] = exaggerated tale, exaggerating, adorning the truth
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	raff, raf = rope, cord, string, line, cable, noose, halter reffyn, rheffyn = (small) rope, cord, string, (fishing) line, cable, noose, halter
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhaff = rope, cord, string, line, cable, noose, halter rhaffu, rhaff(i)o = to tie with a rope or cord, to rope, fix a rop on, make a rope, to string or join (words, etc), connect together, link, crumple, spoil, waste, eat eagerly, gobble, snatch rhaff(i)aid = rope(ful), that which is held by a rope rhaffol = roped, made of rope(s), funicular rhaffwr, rhaffydd = rope-maker rheffyn = (small) rope, cord, string, (fishing) line, cable, noose, halter

Etymology: from Middle English rop(e) (rope), from Old English rāp (rope, cord, cable), from Proto-West-Germanic *raip (string, band), from Proto-Germanic *raipaz (rope, cord, band, ringlet), possibly from Proto-Indo-European *h₁royp-nó-s (band, strip, strap) [source]. The Welsh words are probably cognate, but their origins are not certain.

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	corda = cord, rope
Irish (Gaeilge)	corda = cord, string, chord cordach = chordate, corded cordaigh = to cord
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	còrd = cord, chord
Manx (Gaelg)	coard, coyrd, coyrdey = cord
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	kord = cord, string, small rope, halter cort = cord, string, twine, rope
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cord = cord, string, small rope, halter cort = cord, string, twine, rope cortio = to cord, fasten with cords or strings, twist
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	cord = cord corden = string
Cornish (Kernewek)	korden = cord, string korden an keyn = spinal cord
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	corden, cordenn, querdenn, querdeynn = rope cordenner = tailpiece
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kordenn [ˈkɔr.dɛn] = rope kordennan = to rope, fish with longlines kordenner = tailpiece kordennerezh = ropework kordennig = cord, string

Etymology (Breton): from Middle French corde (rope), from Old French corde (rope), from Latin chorda (tripe, intestine, catgut, string, rope, cord), from Ancient Greek χορδή (khordḗ, string of gut, chord, sausage, black pudding), from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰerH- (bowel) [source].

Etymology (other languages): from Middle English corde (cord, string, sinew), from Old French corde (rope), from Latin chorda (tripe, intestine, catgut, string, rope, cord), from Ancient Greek χορδή (khordḗ, string of gut, chord, sausage, black pudding), from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰerH- (bowel)[source].

Words from the same roots include cord, chord, hernia and yarn in English, corda (rope, chord, string) in Italian, and koord (rope, cord) in Dutch [source].

Spindly Axles

16th January 2025 By Simon

Words for axle, axis and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	akslā, aksilā, *axsilā = axis
Old Irish (Goídelc)	ais = back, hinder part
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ais = back, hinder part
Irish (Gaeilge)	ais [aʃ/æʃ/ɛʃ] = back
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	aiseal [aʃəl̪ˠ] = axle(-tree), axis
Manx (Gaelg)	essyl = axle, axis
Proto-Brythonic	axl, ėxɨl = axle, axis (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	echel, achel = axle-tree, axle, axis, pivot
Welsh (Cymraeg)	echel [ˈɛχɛl/ˈeːχɛl] = axle-tree, axle, axis, pivot echelu = to furnish with an axle, place on an axle echelbin = linch-pin echelin = axis, axial, axile
Cornish (Kernewek)	aghel = axle
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	ahel, aël = axle
Breton (Brezhoneg)	ahel [ˈɑ(h)ː.ɛl] = axle ahelan = to centre sth on, to pin (together) ahelek = axial

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *axsi- (back), from Proto-Indo-European *h₂eḱs- (axis), possibly from *h₂eǵ- (to drive) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include: axis and axle in English, as (axis) in Dutch, Achse (axis, axle) in German, ais (board, plank) in French, and eje (axis, axle, shaft, spindle, core, heart, hub) in Spanish [source].

Proto-Celtic	u̯ert-iti-, u̯er-t- = to turn
Old Irish (Goídelc)	fertas = axle, spindle, shaft, rung, ridge, bank
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	fertas, fersat = shaft, spoke, axle, shaft, axletree, swingletree
Irish (Gaeilge)	fearsaid [ˈfʲaɾˠsˠədʲ] = spindle, shaft, axle(-tree), passage, piece of poetry, verse, ditty fearsaideach = shafted, spindly
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	fearsad, feairisid [fjar̪ˠsəd, fɛr̪ʃɪdʲ] = spindle, shaft, axle, rung, spoke, track, rut, sandbar, ripple mark (in sand at low tide)
Manx (Gaelg)	fess = spindle
Proto-Brythonic	axl, ėxɨl = axle, axis (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	guerthyt, gwerthyt = spindle, axle, shaft
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gwerthyd = spindle, axle, shaft, rung, stave gwerthydu = to furnish with a spindle or axle, to fashion like a spindle gwerthydaid = spindleful of yarn gwerthydwr = spindle-maker
Old Cornish	gurhthit = spindle
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	gurthid, gurhthit, gurthyd = spindle
Cornish (Kernewek)	gwerthys = bobbin, cage, spindle
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	guirtit, guirtitou = spindle, axis
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	guerzit = spindle, axis
Breton (Brezhoneg)	gwerzhid [ˈɡwɛrzit] = spindle, axis

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *wértti (to be turning around), from *wert- (to turn, rotate) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include: verse, version, versus, vertebra, vertical, vortex, wierd and worth in English, worden (to become, get, grow, turn) in Dutch, and werden (will, be going to) in German [source].

Proto-Celtic	*molos = grinder
Old Irish (Goídelc)	mol = axle (for a mill-wheel), shaft
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	mol, moil, muil = axle, shaft (of a mill-wheel)
Irish (Gaeilge)	mol [mˠɔl̪ˠ / mˠʌlˠ] = hub, shaft, pivot, nave, Pole, top, crown Mol Thuaid = North Pole Mol Theas = South Pole
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	mul [mul̪ˠ] = axis, axle-tree
Manx (Gaelg)	moll = nave

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *molh₂ós, from *melh₂- (to grind, crush) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include: Mjollnir (Thor’s hammer), mallet, meal, mill, millet, molar, and mull in English, Mühle (mill, grinder) in German, milho (maize, corncob) in Portuguese, and mijo (millet) in Spanish [source].

Pursuing Followers

11th January 2025 By Simon

Words for to follow, pursue and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*sekʷetor = to follow
Old Irish (Goídelc)	seichithir = to follow, persue sechem = following, imitating
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	seichithir sechethar, sechtir = to follow, persue sechem, sechim = following, imitating sechimthid, seichteóir, seichthid = follower
Irish (Gaeilge)	seicheamh = following, taking after, imitating, sequence, progression fosheicheamh = subsequence

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *sékʷetor (to be following), from *sekʷ- (to follow) [source]. Words from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Gaulish (?) and Latin segusius (a hunting dog) include: sabuxo (hound) in Galician, segugio (hound, bloodhound, private eye, sleuth) in Spanish, and sabujo (hound, submissive person) in Portuguese [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include: associate, sector, sequence, society, (to) sue, suit, suite and subsequent in English, suivre (to follow) in French, sèkti (to observe, track down, follow, spy on) in Lithuanian, and seguir (to follow, continue, keep (on)) in Spanish [source].

Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	sewye, sewé, sywé = to follow, persue
Cornish (Kernewek)	sewya = to follow, result holyans = consequence, outcome, result, sequel

Etymology: from English (to) sue [source], which used to mean to follow or court, and comes from Middle English seuen (to follow, walk behind, be guided), from Anglo-Norman suer, siwer (to follow), from Old French sivre (to follow after), from Vulgar Latin *sequere (to follow), from Latin sequī, from sequor (to follow, pursue, succeed), from Proto-Italic *sekʷōr (to follow, come/go after), from Proto-Indo-European *sekʷ- (to follow) [source].

Proto-Celtic	linati = to stick, cling ati-linati = to adhere, stick to, cling
Old Irish (Goídelc)	lenaid [ˈl͈ʲenɨðʲ] = to stick, cling, follow, remain, continue, survive lenamain = adhering, clinging, following ad·len = to follow, adhere
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lena(i)d = to remain, continue, survive, pursue, persist, cleave to, cling to, adhere to, stay with, follow len(a)main = adhering, clinging to, stuck in, following, pursuing ad·len = to follow, adhere
Irish (Gaeilge)	lean [lʲan̪ˠ] = to follow, continue, remain, endure leantach = consecutive, continuing leantóir = follower, trailer leanúint = following, persuit, adherence, continuation leanúnach = follower, pursuer, successor, continuant, continuous, successive leanúnachas = continuity, attachment, faithfulness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lean [l̪ʲɛn] = follow, pursue, ensue, succeed, follow, continue, go on, stick to leanachd [l̪ʲɛnəxg] = following, pursuing, pursuit, followers, ensuing, succeeding, continuing leanadail [l̪ʲɛnədal] = attendant leanailteach [l̪ʲɛnnaldʲəx] = adhesive, sticking, sticky, dogged, persistent, tenacious leanailteachd [l̪ʲɛnaldʲəxg] = continuity, perseverance, tenacity, adhesiveness, adhesion leanaltas = perseverance
Manx (Gaelg)	lhian(t) = to follow lhiantag = attachment lhiantyn = following lhiantyn da/gys = to cleave (to) lhiantyn hug = to attach, obsess lhiantyn huggey = to take after lhiantyn rish = to cleave, persevere, pursue, stick to, cling lhiantys = adherence, attachment lhiantynys = adhesion, attachment
Proto-Brythonic	*llɨnad = to stick, cling
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	linisant = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llynu = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear edlynv, eddlynu, edlynu = to smear, besmear, daub, slabber, befoul
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llynaf, llynu = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear edlynaf, edlynu = to smear, besmear, daub, slabber, befoul

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂leyH- (to smear) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include lime, liniment, loam and delete in English, lijm (glue) in Dutch, limon (silt) in French, Leim (glue) in German, limo (mud, slime, silt) in Italian, and lim (glue) in Swedish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*solgos = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	olhau = to follow, trace
Welsh (Cymraeg)	olhaf, olhau = to follow, trace
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	holye = to come after, to follow
Cornish (Kernewek)	holya = to follow holyans = sequence holyer, holyores = follower
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	hol = (act of) following
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	heul = following heultaff = to follow
Breton (Brezhoneg)	heul [høːl] = continuation, cortege, parade, escort, procession heuli(a)ñ [ˈhøljã] = to follow heul(iad) [ˈhø.ljat] = procession, line, sequence, continuation, series, train heuliadur = extension heuliata = to continue heuliataer = follower heulier = follower, adept, minion heulius = conformist

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *selgʰ- (to follow) [source].

Dutiful Laws

30th December 20246th February 2025 By Simon

Words for duty, debt, law, rule and related things in Celtic languages.

Scottish Parliament / Pàrlamaid na h-Alba / Scots Pairlament

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*dligeti = to be entitled to, be obligated to
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dligid = to deserve, merit, be entitled to
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dligid, dleagaid = to be entitled to, have a right to, be owed, deserve, merit
Irish (Gaeilge)	dligh [dʲlʲɪɟ/dʲlʲiː] = to be entitled to, have a right to, deserve, merit, be incumbent on, be liable to, ought to
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dligh [dli] = owe, be due dleas [dles] = deserve, merit, due dleasach [dlesəx] = deserving, meriting dleasadh [dlesəɣ] = (act of) deserving, meriting dleasannas [dlesən̪ˠəs] = obligation, duty dleasanta [dlesən̪ˠdə] = deserving, meriting dleasnach [dlesn̪ˠəx] = dutiful dleastanas [dlesdənəs] = obligation, duty
Manx (Gaelg)	toill = to deserve, will toillchin = to deserve, earn, merit, reward; derserving, worthy toillchinagh = deserving, meritorious toillchinys = desert, merit toillchyn = to deserve, merit toilliu = to deserve, earn, merit; deserving, worthy
Proto-Brythonic	*dɨlɣɨd = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	deleu, dyly, dylu = to be obliged to, ought, be indebted, behove, owe, be in debt, have a right to, claim, merit, deserve, posses, claim from
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dylu [ˈklɛðɨ̞v/ˈkleːðɪv] = to be obliged to, ought, be indebted, behove, owe, be in debt, have a right to, claim, merit, deserve, posses, claim from (other forms include: dylaf, dylÿaf, dlyaf, dylÿu, dlyu, dleu, deleu)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	dely, dylly = to owe, deserve
Cornish (Kernewek)	tyli = to owe, pay, reward tylva = checkout, till
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dleout = must
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dleout [ˈdleː.ut] = to have to, must, owe dleañ = to have to, must, owe; judicious

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *dʰlégʰ-ti/*dʰl̥gʰ-énti, from *dʰlegʰ- (to beat, strike) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots possibly include dolog (thing, object, affair, business, task, fate) in Hungarian, dług (debt, account payable) in Polish, долг (dolg – debt, duty, obligation) in Russian, and dlh (debt) in Slovak [source].

Proto-Celtic	*dligetom = duty, debt
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dliged, dligeth [ˈdʲlʲiɣʲeð] = law, principle, rule, theory, dictum dlecht = lawful dligthech = lawful, right
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dliged, dligeth, dleged = law, principle, rule, norm, dictum, reason, argument, reckoning, nature, condition, kind, manner dligedach = lawful dligemnas = lawful right dligthech = regular, right, lawful, law-abiding, rational, reasonable, just, righteous dligthe(m)nach, dligtheanuigh = lawgiver dligtheoir = lawyer, man of law
Irish (Gaeilge)	dlí [dʲlʲiː] = law, divine precept, scientific principle, litigation dlíodóir = lawyer dlíodóireacht = practice of law, practising law dlíthí = litigant dlíthíoch = litigious dlíthíocht = litigiousness dlíthiúil = legal, juridicial, lawful, litigious dlíthiúilacht = legality, lawfulness dleacht = due, lawful right, royalty, patent dleathach = lawful, legal, valud, genuine, just, proper dleathaíocht = legality, justice, propriety
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dlighe [dli.ə] = ordinance (in law), due dligheach [dli.əx] = lawful, legitimatem rightful, right, due, dutiful, just dligheachas [dli.əxəs] = lawful right, jurisdiction, validity dligheachd [dli.əxg] = legality, royalty (payment) dligheadh [dli.əɣ] = (act of) owing, being due, stipend dlighear [dli.ər] = lawyer, creditor dligheil [dli.al] = legitimate, lawful, rightful
Proto-Brythonic	*dlɨɣed = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	delehet, deleed, dylyet, dlyet, dylet = debt, due, claim, right, demand, oblitation, duty dylyedawc, dylyedauc, dylyedaỽc dyledawg = noble, privileged, dignified, illustrious, rightful dyledogaeth, dlyedogaeth = nobility, lordship, proprietorship dylyedus, dyledus = due, proper, meet, lawful, worthy, just, necessary, requisite, owing, in debt, indebted dyledwr = debtor, defaulter, trespasser
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dyled [ˈdəlɛd] = debt, due, claim, right, demand, oblitation, duty, service, heritage, estate, worth, privilege, sins, transgressions, trespasses [also written dylêd, dled, dylyed, dlyed] dyled(i)ach = trifling debts, dribbling debts dyledu = to owe, be due, debit, make due dyledog = indebted, in debt, due, noble, privileged, dignified, illustrious, debtor dyl(y)edus = due, proper, meet, lawful, worthy, just, necessary, requisite, owing, in debt, indebted, noble, privileged, dignified, reasonable, sensible, understanding dyledwr = debtor, defaulter, trespasser
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dle = due, owing dleat = moral duty, tax
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dle = due, owing, debt dlead = moral duty, tax dleatour = debtor dleapl = liable dleoniezh = ethics d(e)leour = debtor, creditor

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *dligeti (to owe, be indebted to) – see above [source].

Proto-Celtic	*ká(g)ni- = tribute, law
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cáin [kaːnʲ] = law, regulation, rule, fine, tax, tribute, legal due
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cáin, cain = law, regulation, rule, fine, tax, tribute
Irish (Gaeilge)	cáin [kɑːnʲ/kaːnʲ] = law, regulation, rule, due, tribute, fine, penalty, impost, tax cáinaisnéis = budget cáinaisnéiseach = budgetary
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	càin [kaːn̪ʲ] = duty, tariff, tribute, fine; body of laws (archaic) càin-aisneis = budget càineach, càinear, càiniche = tax/excise collector, tax gatherer càineachadh [kaːn̪ʲəxəɣ] = (act of) imposing a tax

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *keh₂/₃ǵ-n- [source]. Words from the same root may include kázeň (discipline) in Czech, kaźń (execution, torture, torment) in Polish, and kázeň (sermon, discipline) in Slovak [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	cís = tax, tribute
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cís, cis, cíos = tax, tribute, cess, rent císach = receiving or exacting tribute císaige = tributary, rent-payer císugud = paying tribute
Irish (Gaeilge)	cíos [ciːsˠ] = rent, price; tax tribute (historical) cíosach = rent-paying, tributary cíosaí = rent-payer cíosaigh = to rent, pay rent for, compensate for cíoscháin = tribute cíoscheannach = hire-purchase
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cìos [kʲiəs] = tribute, tax cìs [kʲiːʃ] = tax, levy cìsachadh [kʲiːʃəxəɣ] = taxing, taxation cìsachas [kʲiːʃəxəs] = taxation cìseadair [kʲiːʃədɪrʲ] = exciseman cìsear [kʲiːʃər] = tax/excise collector, tax gatherer
Manx (Gaelg)	keesh = custom, duty, tax, toll, tribute, contribution keeshagh = assessable, taxable, tributary keeshyn = taxation, taxes, tribute, dues

Etymology: from Latin cēnsus (census, register, rich gifts, presents, wealth), from cēnseō from Proto-Italic *kensēō (to give an opinion), from *kensējō, from Proto-Indo-European *ḱenséh₁-ye-ti, from *ḱens- (to announce, proclaim, put in order). Words from the same roots may include census in English, censo (census, wealth) in Italian, Zins (interest, tribute) in German, and czynsz (rent) in Polish [source].

Proto-Celtic	rextus = rule, law kom-rextus = law (?)
Celtiberian	Retukeno = personal name
Gaulish	Rextugenos = personal name
Old Irish (Goídelc)	recht, rect [r͈ʲext] = law rechtach = law-giving rechtaid = lawgiver rechtaide = legal rechtaigid = to legislate rechtaire = steward rechtas = stewardship rechtge = government rechtmar = lawful
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	recht, rect, reacht = law, authority, rule, right, lawfulness rechtach = just, equitable, law-giving rechtaid, rechtaidh = judge, lawgiver rechtaide = legal, pertaining to the law, lawful rechtaigid = to legislate rechtaire, rechtorairge = steward, baliff, administrator, judge (?) rechtas, rechtus, rechtcus = authority, administration, stewardship rechtge, rechtga = government, authority, rule, regin rechtmar = lawful, legitimate
Irish (Gaeilge)	reacht [ɾˠaxt̪ˠ] = law, statute, accepted rule reachtach = law-giving, legislative reachtaigh = to legislate, enact, decree reachtaíocht = legislation reachtaire = controller, administrator, steward, Rector, auditor, master of ceremonies reachtas = administration, stewardship reachtmhar = lawful, legitimate reachtóir = lawgiver, legislator reachtúil = statutory, statute
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	reachd [r̪ˠɛxg] = decree, statue, edict reachdach [r̪ˠɛxgəx] = compulsory reachdachadh [r̪ˠɛxgəxəɣ] = (act of) legislating, law-making, legislature reachdadair [r̪ˠɛxgədɪrʲ] = lawmaker, legislator reachdadaireachd [r̪ˠɛxgədɪrʲəxg] = legislature reachdail [r̪ˠɛxgdal] = legislative, statutory reachdas [r̪ˠɛxgəs] = legislation
Proto-Brythonic	rreiθ = rule, law kuβ̃reiθ = law (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	reyth, reith, rhaith = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict cyfreith, kiureith, kefreyth [ˈkəvrai̯θ] = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhaith [r̥ai̯θ] = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict rhaithgor = jury cyfraith [ˈkəvrai̯θ] = law, legislation, statute, custom, usage, jurisprudence
Cornish (Kernewek)	reyth = regular, right, religious law reythennek, reythednek = statutory reythen = statute reythe = to authorise, codify, empower, entitle, qualify reythes = authorised, empowered, enacted, entitled, qualified reythyans = enactment, jurispridence, lawmaking, legislation
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	reith = law
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	rez, reiz = law rezder = law
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reizh = right, just, correct, order, normal reizhad = regular reizhadenn = rectification, corrected reizhadur = adjustment reizhan = to correct, adapt, regular, initiate reizhded = correctness, rectitude, normality reizhder = regularity reizhegezh = legitimacy reizhek = legitimate reizhekaat = to legitimize reizhennan = to regulate reizhus = legal

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₃reǵ- (to straighten, to righten) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include rail, rank, realm, regime, rule and regulation in English, rę́žti (to stretch) in Lithuanian, règle (rule, regulation) in French, and regla (rule, ruler) in Spanish [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	ríagal, ríagul = rule
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ríagal, riagoil, riaguil = rule, authority
Irish (Gaeilge)	riail [ɾˠiəlʲ] = rule, regulation, principle, sway, authority, order rialachán = regulation rialúchán = regulation, control
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	riaghail [r̪ˠiə.al] = rule, govern, administer riaghailt [r̪ˠiə.əldʲ] = rule, regulation, government riaghailteach [r̪ˠiə.əl̪ˠdʲəx] = regular, according to rule, orderly riaghailteachadh [r̪ˠiə.aldʲəxəɣ] = (act of) formulating, regulating, adjusting, adjustment riaghailteachas [r̪ˠiə.aldʲəxəs] = regulatory riaghailteachd = regularity, moderation riaghailtear [r̪ˠiə.aldʲər] = regulator riaghailtearachd [r̪ˠiə.aldʲərəxg] = administration riaghal [r̪ˠiə.əl̪ˠ] = rule
Manx (Gaelg)	reill = code, dominion, governance, policy, principle, reign; to charge, govern, order, regulate, rule reilley = to regulate, reign, rule; ruling reilleyder = governor, regulator, ruler, straight edge reilt = normal, to rule reiltagh = director, ordinal, president, rector, ruler; decisive, ruling, regular reiltys = governance, rule, kingdom, dominion, government
Proto-Brythonic	*rreɣol = rule (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ryol, reol, rhwol = rule, regulation, procedure, order, custom, pattern, government, dominion rhyolaeth, reolaeth = rule, control, management, authority, discipline rwyoli, reoli, ryoli, rhywoli = to rule, control, direct, govern roliad = rule, control, government ryolus, reolus, rheolus, rreolys = regular, orderly, disciplined, moderate, consant
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rheol [ˈr̥eː.ɔl] = rule, regulation, procedure, order, custom, pattern, government, dominion rheol(i)aeth = rule, control, management, authority, discipline rheoli = to rule, control, direct, govern rheolaidd = regular, regulated, orderly rheoliad = rule, control, government rheolus = regular, orderly, disciplined, moderate, consant
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	reol, rowl, rovle = rule, government rowler = ruler, governor
Cornish (Kernewek)	rewl, rowl = regulation, rule rewlya, rowlya = to control, regulate, rule rewlyades, rowlyades = ruler (f) rewlyas, rowlyas = ruler (m) rewlys = regular
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	regul = rule, regulation
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	reul, reol, reoll = rule, regulation reulenn = rule reulennaff = to regulate
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reol = rule, principle, regime reolennadur = regulation reolennan = to regulate reoliadur = regulation reoliata = to regulate reoliek = regular reolius = regulatory

Etymology: from Latin rēgula (rule, bar, ruler), from regō (I rule, govern, direct, guide, steer, control), from Proto-Italic *regō, from Proto-Indo-European *h₃réǵeti (to be straightening, to be setting upright), from *h₃reǵ- (to straighten, to righten) – see above [source].

Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lagh [l̪ˠɤɣ] = law laghachd [l̪ˠɤɣəxg] = legislation laghadh [l̪ˠɤɣəɣ] = legalising, legalisation laghaiche [l̪ˠɤɣɪçə] = lawyer, solicitor laghaichte [l̪ˠɤɣɪçdʲə] = legalised laghail [l̪ˠɤɣal] = legal, lawful, litigious, argumentative laghaileachd [l̪ˠɤɣaləxg] = lawfulness, legality
Manx (Gaelg)	leigh = enactment, law, respect leighagh = legal, litigious leighder = lawyer, advocate, attorney, barrister, council leighoil = lawful, legal, legislative, legitimate

Etymology: from English law, or Middle English lawe/laȝe (law, regulation, morality), or Old English lagu (law, rule, right), all of which come from Old Norse lǫg (law, rule, right), from Proto-Germanic *lagą (situation, law, a settled amount), from Proto-Indo-European *legʰ- (to lie [down]). The English words lie and lay come from the same roots [source].

Gorse & Furze

18th December 202418th December 2024 By Simon

Words for furze, gorse, whin and related things in Celtic languages.

Gorse is an evergreen shrub, of the genus Ulex, having thorns, spiny leaves, and yellow flowers, also known as furze or whin [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*axtīnos = furze, gorse
Old Irish (Goídelc)	aittenn = furze, gorse
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	aittenn, aiten, aittiun, aitend = furze, gorse aittnech = furze-like
Irish (Gaeilge)	aiteann [ˈætʲən̪ˠ] = furze, gorse, whin aiteannach = furze, gorse, whins
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	aiteann [ahdʲən̪ˠ] = (common) gorse, whin, furze, juniper aiteannach [ahdʲən̪ˠəx] = place where junipers grow, clump of junipers, pertaining to junipers
Manx (Gaelg)	aadjin = gorse aittin = furse, gorse, whin
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	eithin = gorse, furze, whin eithinauc, eithinoc, eithinog = full of gorse, furzy, prickly, gorse land
Welsh (Cymraeg)	eithin = gorse, furze, whin eithino = to place furze on top of walls to prevent sheep, etc, from breaking through eithinog = full of gorse, furzy, prickly, gorse land llwyn eithin = gorse bush tân eithin = gorse firse, flash in the pan aith = furze, gorse
Old Cornish	eythinen = furze, gorse
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	eithin, eythinen = furze, gorse
Cornish (Kernewek)	eythinen = furze, gorse
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	ethin = furze, gorse
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	ethin = furze, gorse

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂eḱstis, from *h₂eḱ- (sharp) [source]. Words from the same roots include acid, acute, astute, cute, eager, edge, ear and hear in English, egge (skewed, sharp side, edge, corner) in Dutch, Ecke (corner, edge, region, area, neighbourhood) in German, and aaja (large, wide, board) in Finnish [source].

In Welsh, a dob is an implement for cutting or chopping gorse.

Irish (Gaeilge)	conasg = furze, gorse, whin (?)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	conas(g), coineas [kɔnəs(g)/kɔ̪nʲəs] = (common) gorse, whin, furze conasgach [kɔnəsgəx] = pertaining to or abounding in gorse/whin/furze
Manx (Gaelg)	conney = gorse, firewood, combustible, fuel, money conney frangagh = furze, gorse, whin conney freoaie = heather

Etymology: uncertain [source].

A word for gorse, furze or whin in Breton is lann, which comes from Middle Breton lann, from Old Breton lann, possibly from Proto-Brythonic *llann (land, area, sacred place), from Proto-Celtic *landā (land), from Proto-Indo-European *lendʰ- (land, heath). It appears in place names such as Landaol, Landagroez, Landnarvili and Landudeg, and may be related to the Welsh word llan (church, parish). See the Celtiadur post about Land, Parishes & Enclosures for more details.

Here’s a Welsh folk song, Gwcw Fach (Little Cuckoo), which mentions eithin. It’s played by some my friends of mine – Irfan Rais on bouzouki, Meinir Olwen on cello and Joshua Smith on mandolin.

Original Pedigree

21st November 2024 By Simon

Words for origin, basis, nobility and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*bonusedom = lineage, pedigree, origin
Old Irish (Goídelc)	bunad = basis, origin, stock
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	bunad, bonadh, búnad = origin, basis, source, stock bunadach, bunadhach = belonging to the original stock bunadas, bunus = origin, source bunatta, bunata = original, basic, permanent
Irish (Gaeilge)	bunadh [ˈbˠʊn̪ˠə] = origin, stock, kind, native inhabitants, original, fundamental, basic, base bunaigh = to found, establish bunaíoch = primitive bunaíocht = establishment bunús = origin, basis, substance, essence, wealth, majority
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	bunadh [bunəɣ] = origin, stock, rock, foundation
Manx (Gaelg)	bunneydagh = basic, elemental, fundamental, original, primitive, radical bunneydys = basis, foundation, groundwork, origin, root
Proto-Brythonic	*bonheð = ?
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	boned, bonhed = nobility, nobleness, noble, descent, lingeage, pedigree
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	boned, bonhed = nobility, nobleness, noble, descent, lingeage, pedigree bon(h)edigeid, bonhedigeit = noble, aristocratic, honourable, gracious, kind, gentle, courteous, polite bonedigeidrwyd = nobility, nobleness, aristocracy, gentility, chivalry, courtesy bonhedyc, bonhedic, bonheddig = noble, aristocratic
Welsh (Cymraeg)	bonedd = nobility, nobleness, noble, descent, lineage, pedigree boneddigaidd = noble, aristocratic, honourable, gracious, kind, gentle, courteous, polite boneddigeiddrwydd = nobility, nobleness, aristocracy, gentility, chivalry, courtesy bonheddig = noble, aristocratic bonheddu = to ennoble, dignify bonheddes = lady, Lady bonheddwr = nobleman, gentleman, aristocrat

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *bonus (base) + *sedom (seat, sitting) – see also the posts Foundations and Peace and Fairies, and for other words related to nobles, princes, chiefs, etc, see the post Leader in Chief.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	cepp = block, (tree) stump
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cepp, cip, cep = tree-stump, log, block, anvil-block genealogical stock, ancestor ceppach, cepach, cepaig = piece of ground where trees have been felled, slaughter ceppaid = to shape, form, fashion, confine, restrict ceppdae = inert
Irish (Gaeilge)	ceap [capˠ] = stock, block, base, (shoemaker’s) last, nave, hub, compact body, chief, protector, (flower) bed ceapadh = fashioning, composition, formation, appointment, assignation, conception ceapadóir = shaper, moulder, composer, inventor ceapadóireacht = composition ceapaire = shaped, moulded, object, shapely person, thing, sandwich
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ceap [kʲɛhb] = block, (shoemaker’s) last, lump, cape, cap, turf, stocks, fret
Manx (Gaelg)	kiap = block, butt, log, pad, pillow, snag, stock, trunk
Proto-Brythonic	*kɨf = the most in chief
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	ciphillion = stock, trunk, box, ancestry, blockhead, dull-witted person
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	kyf(f), cyff = (tree) trunk, stock, stem, stump, log, trunk (of body), block, blockhead; box, coffer, chest; stocks, kinsfolk, lineage, ancestry, origin, race, source kyfyll, kiffil, cyffyll = stock, trunk, box, ancestry, blockhead, dull-witted person
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cyff [kɨːf/kiːf] = (tree) trunk, stock, stem, stump, log, trunk (of body), block, blockhead; box, coffer, chest; stock, kinsfolk, lineage, ancestry, origin, race, source cyffyll = stock, trunk, box, ancestry, blockhead, dull-witted person
Cornish (Kernewek)	kyf = log
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	cepp = stump, stock, log, trunk
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	queff = stump, stock, log, trunk
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kef [kefː] = trunk, log, box kefiañ = to make branches, put the irons (on)

Etymology: from Latin cippus / cīpus (stake, post, gravestone, landmark), possibly from Proto-Italic *keipos, from Proto-Indo-European *(s)ḱéypos (pole, stick). Words from the same roots include ceppo (stump, log, block of wood), cipo (milestone) in Spanish, and Kipfl (croissant) in German [source].

Proto-Celtic	akkā = ? akkiyā = proximity, lineage
Old Irish (Goídelc)	aicce = nearness, proximity
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	aicce, aicci = nearness, proximity, near, beside, fosterage
Irish (Gaeilge)	aice [ˈacɪ] = nearness, proximity in aice (na/le) = near aicearra = short-cut, abridgement aicerrach = short, near, pithy, succinct aicerracht = shortness, pithiness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	aice [açgʲə] = proximity
Manx (Gaelg)	faare = adjacent, presence, proximity, near, nigh
Proto-Brythonic	*ax = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ach = lineage, descent, pedigree, genealogy, ancestry, family origins achwet = lingeage, descent, pedigree, kindred, family
Welsh (Cymraeg)	ach [aːχ] = lineage, descent, pedigree, genealogy, ancestry, family origins achres(tr) = genealogical table, pedigree, lineage achwedd = lingeage, descent, pedigree, kindred, family achwr, achydd, achyddwr = genealogist, herald achwyddol = genealogical, heraldic achyddu = to genealogize achyddiaeth = genealogy, heraldry; lineage, pedigree
Old Cornish	ach = offspring, progeny
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	ach = offspring, progeny, stock, kindred
Cornish (Kernewek)	agh [æːx] = offspring, race aghel = racial aghskrif = pedigree
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	acom = ?

Etymology: possibly from PIE *h₂ekkeh₂. Words from the same root include अक्का (akkā – mother) in Sanskrit, आक्का (ākkā – older sister, elderly woman) in Marathi and අක්‍කා (akkā – older sister) in Sinhalese [source 1, source 2].

In Cornish, origin, beginning, start, inception or opening = dalleth; noble = nobyl, pennsevik, ughelor or bryntin; lineage or race = linieth (Middle Cornish), and race or ethnicity = hil (Revived Cornish) – see the post about Seeds.

Counting Numbers

7th November 2024 By Simon

Words for number, to count and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*rīmā = number
Old Irish (Goídelc)	rím [r͈ʲiːβ̃] = counting, enumerating, number, telling, relating, metrics rímid [ˈr͈ʲiːβ̃ɨðʲ] = to count, reckon, estimate, impute, compose, recount, relate
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	rím = counting, enumerating, number, telling, relating rímid, rímaid = to count, reckon, estimate, recount, relate, compose
Irish (Gaeilge)	ríomh [ɾˠiːvˠ/ɾˠiːw] = enumeration, calculation, computation, narration ríomhaire = counter, enumerator, calculator, computer ríomhaireacht = counting, enumeration, calculation, computation ríomhchláraitheoir = computer programmer ríomheolaíocht = computer science
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	rìomh† = reckoning, numbering, computation rìmh† = number, to reckon, compute
Proto-Brythonic	*rriβ̃ = number
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	rif, yrif, rhif = sum, number, etc rhifo, riuaw, riuaỽ = to count rifed, riued, ryved = number, many, abundance
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhif [r̥iːv] = the sum, number, as many or numerous (as), a (great) many, crowd, host, multitude, large amount, worth, esteem, honour, praise, figure, digit, numeral, count, reckoning, measure rhifadwy = countable, numerable rhif(i)o = to count, number, amount to, enumerate, list, recount, enlist, muster rhifed = number, many, abundance
Cornish (Kernewek)	riv = number riva = to number riven = digit
Breton (Brezhoneg)	riñv = number

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *h₂rey- (to count, reason, think) [source]. Words from the same root include arithmetic, rhyme, rite, ritual and ready in Englsh, reic (to sell in Irish, řádný (regular) in Czech, and rinda (row, line, queue) in Latvian [source].

Proto-Celtic	*adrīmā = counting, number, reckoning
Old Irish (Goídelc)	áirem = number, numeral, quantity. amount, sum, reckoning, repute, account
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	áirem, áram, arim, ārem = counting, reckoning, estimating, number, numeral, amount, sum comáirem, comairem, comairemh = reckoning, calculating, computation
Irish (Gaeilge)	áireamh = enumeration, census, arithmetric, number, portion comhair = to count, calculate comhaireamh = to count, calculation, reckoning
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	àireamh [aːrʲəv] = number, sum, tally, computation, counting, enumerating; count, enumerate àireamhach [aːrʲəvəx] = numeral, arithmetician àireamhachadh [aːrʲəvəxəɣ] = numbering, enumerating, enumeration, calculating, computing, calculation, computation àireamhail [aːrʲəvəxal] = arithmetical àireamhachas [aːrʲəvəxəs] = numeracy àireamhair [aːrʲəvɛrʲ] = calculator (tool), arithmetician
Manx (Gaelg)	earroo = number, sum, figure, census, statistics, tell co-earroo = calculation, computation, counting, telling, to compute, count earrooaghey = number(ing) co-earrooaghey = to calculate, calculating, numbering
Proto-Brythonic	*ėðriβ̃ = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	eryryw, eiryf, eirif = number, amount, sum, account, reckoning
Welsh (Cymraeg)	eirif = number, amount, a large number, many, sum, account, reckoning
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	eirimotor = (?)

Etymology: from the Proto-Celtic *rīmā (number) – see above [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	uimir = number
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	(n)uimir = number
Irish (Gaeilge)	uimhir [ˈɪvʲəɾʲ / ˈɨ̞̃vʲəɾʲ] = number, count, aggregate uimhreoir = numerator uimhrigh = to number, figure uimhríocht = arithmetic uimhríochtúil = arithmetical uimhriú = numbering, numeration, figuring uimhriúil = numerical, numeral
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	uimhir [ɯvɪrʲ] = quantity, amount, number, so/as much/many fuimhir [fɯvɪrʲ] = quantity, number uimhireach [ɯvɪrʲəx] = numerous uimhireach [ɯvɪrʲɪç] = arithmetician
Proto-Brythonic	*niβ̃er = number
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	nimer = number
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	niuer, niver, nifer = number host, company, retinue, troop, crowd nifery = to number, enumerate, count niveredic = counted, numbered niferawg, niuerawc, nigerog, niverog = numerous, abundant, having hosts, troops, retinues, etc nifeiriawl, niferawl, niueiriawl = numerous, abundant, numerical kyfnifer, kyfniuer = as many, equal number, even number, a great many, large number, host
Welsh (Cymraeg)	nifer [ˈnɪvɛr] = number, host, company, retinue, troop, crowd niferu, nifeirio = to number, enumerate, count niferedig = counted, numbered niferadol = numerical, pertaining to a census nifer(i)og = numerous, abundant, having hosts, troops, retinues, etc nifer(i)ol = numerous, abundant, numerical cyfnifer = as many, equal number, even number, a great many, large number, host
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	never, niver = number nevera, nivera, nyfyrys = to number, count, reckon cyniver, cynyver, cenifer, cenyver, ceniver = so many, as many as, every, every one
Cornish (Kernewek)	niver = number nivera = to count, number niverek = numerical niverell = counter, counting device niveren = numeral niverenans, niverednans = numbering niveronieth = arithmetic niverus = numerous niveryans = census, count keniver = as many, everyone, so many
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	nimer = number
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	niuer, nyuer = number niueraff = to enumerate, number
Breton (Brezhoneg)	niver [ˈniː.vɛr] = number niveradeg = census niveradur = ennumeration niverenn [ni.ˈveː.rɛn] = number niverennañ = to number niverer = numerator nivererezh = numbering niveridigezh = enumeration, census niveriñ [niˈveːrĩ] = to enumerate, number niveroniezh [ˌni.ve.rɔ̃.ˈniː.ɛs] = arithmetic niverus [ni.ˈveː.rus] = numerous

Etymology: from Latin numerus (number, collection, quantity, time, rhythm) [source], from Proto-Italic *nomezos, from PIE *nem- (to distribute give, take). Words from the same root economic, numb and number, numeral in English, nemen (to take, grasp, grab) in Dutch, nehmen (to take, hold, grasp), and número (number) in Spanish [source].

Celtiadur

Exploring connections between Celtic languages

Category: Old Breton (Brethonoc)

Nights

Satisfying Pleasure

Cressy

Ropes & Strings

Spindly Axles

Pursuing Followers

Dutiful Laws

Gorse & Furze

Original Pedigree

Counting Numbers