Childish Infants

25th February 2026 By Simon

Words for baby, infant and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	lenab = baby, child, infant lenbaide = childish, puerile lenbaidecht = childishness, childish pursuits, childish play
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lenap, lenab, lenam, lenb, lenbh, lenabh = baby, child, infant; young man, youth, boy lenbán, lelbán = infant, young child lenbdacht = infancy, childhood, childish pursuits lenbaide, lenbhaidhe = childish, puerile lenbaidecht, lenmaidecht = childishness, childish pursuits, childish play
Irish (Gaeilge)	leanbh [ˈlʲan̪ˠəvˠ / ˈl̠ʲanˠu(ː)] = child leanbaí = child-like, innocent, childish, puerile leanbaí = childhood, childishness, puerility leanb(h)án = little child, baby, darling leanbhaois = (age of) childhood, dotage
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	leanabh [l̪ʲɛnəv] = baby, (young) child, babe leanabhachd [l̪ʲɛnəbəxg] = infancy, childhood, childishness leanabhaidh [l̪ʲɛnəbɪ] = childish, infantile leanabhan [l̪ʲɛnəvan] = infant
Manx (Gaelg)	lhiannoo = baby, child, infant, family lhiannooagh = infantile, babyish, babylike, puerile, boyish; girlish, infantile

Etymology: unknown [source].

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	páitse, pāitside, pāitsidhe = a page, attendant, child
Irish (Gaeilge)	páiste [ˈpˠɑːʃtʲə / ˈpˠaːʃtʲə] = child páistiúil = child-like, childish páistiúilacht = childishness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	pàiste [paːʃdʲə] = child, infant pàistean [paːʃdʲan] = small infant pàisteanach [paːʃdʲanəx] = childish, infantile pàisteil [paːʃdʲal] = babyish
Manx (Gaelg)	paitçhey [ˈpɛːtʃə] = child, brat, kid, (boy) page

Etymology: from Old French page (page – youth attending a person of high degree), from Late Latin pagius (a servant), possibly from Latin pāgus (district, region, countryside, countryfolk), or from Ancient Greek παιδίον (paidíon – young child) [source].

Irish (Gaeilge)	báb = baby, maiden (maiden) bábán = small baby bábánta = babyish, innocent bábóg [ˈbˠabˠɔɡ] = doll
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	bàban† = baby
Manx (Gaelg)	babban = baby, babe, doll
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	baban = baby, infant, doll, puppet
Welsh (Cymraeg)	baban [ˈba(ː)ban] = baby, infant, doll, puppet babanaidd = infant(ile), babyish, childish, childlike babandod [baˈbandɔd] = babyhood, infancy, childhood, babyishness, childishness babanu = to baby, coddle, pamper, spoil, cherish
Middle Cornish (Cernewec . Kernuak)	baban = babe, child
Cornish (Kernewek)	baban [ˈba.ban] = baby, baby doll babi = baby
Breton (Brezhoneg)	babig(ed), baba = baby babigour = childcare worker babik = childish, babyish, puerile

Etymology: from Middle English babe, baban (baby, infant), and/or Old English *baba (a male child), from Proto-West Germanic *babō, from Proto-Germanic *babô. Words from the same roots include baby and babe in English baby (baby) in Dutch, baby (table football, baby, darling, sweetheart) in French, and baby (child, baby, small shot of whisky, tripod) in Italian [source].

For other words for child(ren) see the Cowherd, boy, child post.

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Geriafurch, TermOfis

What?

12th November 202512th November 2025 By Simon

Words for what? which? who? where? and related things in Celtic languages.

What?

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷid? = what?
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cid? = what? cote, cate, catte [ˈko.d̠ʲe] = of what sort is …? what is …?
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cote, coteeet, codde, cate, cati, cáte = what (is)?
Irish (Gaeilge)	cad? [kad̪ˠ] = what? where? (in Munster) cad é? [kəd̪ˠˈeː] = what? (in Connacht & Ulster) cad é mar (atá tú)? = how (are you)? (in Ulster) céard? [ceːɾˠd̪ˠ] = what? (in Connacht) goidé? [ɡəˈtʲeː] = what? (in Connacht & Ulster) cad chuige? [kɑt̪ˠ ˈxɪɟɪ / kəˈt̪ˠiɟə] = why? (in Mayo,& Ulster) cad ina thaobh? [ˌkɑn̪ˠəˈheːvˠ] = why? (in Munster)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ciod? [kʲid] = what? ciod air bith = whichever, whatever ciod e? = what? ciod thuige? [kʲid hugʲə] = why? dè? [dʲeː] = what? who? dè man? dè mar? [deː man / dʲeː mar] = how?
Manx (Gaelg)	cre? = what? cre fa? = why? cre wooad? = how much? quoid? = how many? how much?
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	pa? = what? which?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pa? py? = what? which? paham? pam? = why? reason, cause, question
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pa? [paː] = what? which? paham? pam? = why? reason, cause, question pa bryd? = when? at what time? pa un? p’un? = who(m)? which (one)?
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pe? pa? py? = what? which? where? pa le? = where place? where? pahan = what perag? prâg? = for what? wherefore? why? pattel? patla? fattel? fatla? = how? by what means? pe? pa? py? =
Cornish (Kernewek)	py? pe? = what? which? py lies? = how many? pyth? = what?, that which ple? = where? prag? = why? what for? fatla? = how?
Old Breton	pe? = what?
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	pe? pé? = what? peguement? pe quement? = how much? how many? pe en lech? = where? penaus? penos? = how? perac? pe-rac? = why? petra? = who? what?
Breton (Brezhoneg)	pe? [peː] = which one? pegeit? [peˈɡɛjt] = how long? how far? pegement? [pe.ˈɡẽ.mːɛnt] = how much? how many? pegoulz? [pe.ˈɡuls] = when? pehini? [peˈ(h)ĩːni] = which one? pelec’h? [peˈlɛːx] = where? penaos? [pẽ.ˈnɔːs] = how? perak? [pe.ˈrɑːk] = why? peseurt? [peˈsøʁt] = what? what kind? petra? [ˈpe.tʁa] = who? what?

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kʷid (what? which?) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include çë (what?) in Albanian, kas (that, which, who) in Latvian, что (što – that, what, which) in Russian, che (what, which) in Italian, ¿qué? (what? which?) in Spainish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*kʷei? = who?
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cía = what? where? who? how? if, although cía airet? = how long? cía airm? cairm? airm? = where? cía chruth? = how? cía méit? = how many? how much?
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cía? ce? ci? = who? what? how? where?
Irish (Gaeilge)	cá? = what? how? where? cá hait? = (at) what place? where? cá huair? = at what hour? when? cá fhad? = how long? cá mhéad? = how much? how much? cé? = who? cén? = what? which?
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cò? [koː] = who(m)? where? cò idir = whoever cò ann? = wherein? cò as? [ko as] = where from?
Manx (Gaelg)	quoi? [kwəi] = who? whom? which? whichever, who? quoi erbee = who(so)ever, whom(so)ever quoi jeu? = which one? quoid? c’wooad? = how many? how much?
Proto-Brythonic	*puɨ? = who?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pwy? = who(m)? what? pwy bynnac, pwybynnag = whoever
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pwy? [puːɨ̯ / pʊi̯] = who(m)? what? pwy bynnag = whoever
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pew? pyw? p(y)u? piwa? = who? pywpenag, piwha bennac, piwa bennac, pyu penagh = who(s)ever
Cornish (Kernewek)	piw? [piˑʊ] = who? piw penag, piw pynag = whoever piw? = who?
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	piu? = who?
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	piu? piou? = who? piupennac, piu pennac, piou bennac = whoever
Breton (Brezhoneg)	piv? [piw] = who? piv bennak = whoever pivelezh = identity

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kʷís (who? what? which, that) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include ca (than, as) in Romanian, hve (how, like, as) in Icelandic, how and when in English, and hoe (how) in Dutch [source].

Awls & Bodkins

11th October 2025 By Simon

Words for awl, bodkin and related things in Celtic languages.

An awl [ɔːl/ɔl] is a pointed instrument for piercing small holes, as in leather or wood; used by shoemakers, saddlers, cabinetmakers, etc. The blade is differently shaped and pointed for different uses, as in the brad awl, saddler’s awl, shoemaker’s awl, etc. The word comes from Middle English a(u)l (awl), from Old English æl (awl, hook, fork), from Proto-West Germanic *al (awl), from Proto-Germanic *alaz (awl), from Proto-Indo-European *h₁ólos (awl) [source].

A bodkin [ˈbɒdkɪn] is a small sharp pointed tool for making holes in cloth or leather. A blunt needle used for threading ribbon or cord through a hem or casing. A hairpin. A dagger, or a sharp tool, like an awl, formerly used for pressing down individual type characters (e.g. letters) from a column or page in making corrections. It comes from Middle English boydekin (dagger) and possibly has Celtic roots [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*minaweto- = awl
Old Irish (Goídelc)	menad = awl
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	menad, menadh, menath, meanadh = awl, borer or pointed instrument used for drilling holes
Irish (Gaeilge)	meana [ˈmʲan̪ˠə] = awl, bradawl, bodkin
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	minidh, meanaidh [minɪ] = shoemaker’s awl, small awl
Manx (Gaelg)	mennee = awl, bradawl, pricker, stiletto
Proto-Brythonic	*mɨnawed = awl (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	mynawyd, minawed = awl, bradawl, bodkin
Welsh (Cymraeg)	myn(i)awyd = awl, bradawl, bodkin (also written bin(i)ewid, binawad or byniawid) bwyta uwd â mynawyd = to attempt the impossible (“to eat porridge with an awl”) mynawydu, mynawydo = to pierce with an awl mynawydaidd = awl-shaped
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	benewes = awl
Cornish (Kernewek)	menowes = awl
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	menauet = awl, bodkin, punch
Breton (Brezhoneg)	minaoued = awl, bodkin, punch minaoueder = maker of awls, bodkins or punches minaouediñ = to punch

Etymology: unknown; possibly a substrate word [source].

Proto-Celtic	*brazdos = thorn
Old Irish (Goídelc)	brot = goad
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	brot, brud, brod = brotad = act of goading, urging
Irish (Gaeilge)	brod [bˠɾˠod̪ˠ] = goad broideadh = to prod, nudge, bite
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	brog [brog] = awl brogan [brogan] = small awl, probe, poker
Manx (Gaelg)	brod = goad, jab, nudge, prick, spur, stimulus, poker

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *bʰresdʰ-, from *bʰers- (top, tip, point). Words from the same roots include barley, bristle and brush in English, barr (pine needles) in Icelandic, bara (bread) in Welsh, Cornish and Breton, farina (flour, meal) in Italian, and harina (flour) in Spanish [source].

Another word for bodkin in Manx is burkan. Not sure where it comes from. A bodkin in Welsh is also a bwytgyn or botgyn, which come from Middle English boytekyn / boydekin (dagger, bodkin).

Nests

10th September 202510th September 2025 By Simon

Words for nest and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*nizdos = nest
Old Irish (Goídelc)	net = nest
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	net, neid, nead, (n)nit = nest
Irish (Gaeilge)	nead [nʲad̪ˠ] = nest, bed, lair, snug abode, home, den, close group, gang neadaigh = to nest, nestle, bed, set, lodge, settle neadaím = to nestle neadaireacht = nesting, nest-buildling neadú = nesting, settling, nestling, bedding
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	nead [n̪ʲed] = nest, circular hollow neadach = abounding in nests neadachadh [n̪ʲedəxəɣ] = (act of) nesting neadaich [n̪ʲedɪç] = nest!, to nestle, house, lie, build or make a nest neadan [n̪ʲedan] = little nest
Manx (Gaelg)	edd = nest, hat, cap
Proto-Brythonic	*nɨθ [ˈnɨːθ] = nest
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	nyd, nyth, nŷth = nest nythaid, nytheid = nestful (of chicks, etc), brood nythu = to nest, nestle, lie snugly
Welsh (Cymraeg)	nyth [nɨːθ, niːθ] = nest nythaid = nestful (of chicks, etc), brood nythfa [ˈnəθva] = a colony (of birds or insects) nythiad = nesting nythle = nesting place, shelter, pigeon-hole, box nythu [ˈnəθɨ̞, ˈnəθi] = to nest, nestle, lie snugly
Old Cornish	neid = nest
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	nyth, nŷth, neith = nest
Cornish (Kernewek)	neyth = nest neythik = alcove
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	nith = nest
Middle Breton	nez = nest
Breton (Brezhoneg)	neizh, nezh [ˈnɛjs] = nest neizhadur = nesting neizhiad [ˈnɛjzjat] = nested neizhiañ [ˈnɛj.zjã] = to nest, to live neizhiata = to look for nests neizhiet = niche, recess

Note: the Manx word edd was probably nedd originally, but the n was rebracketed as belonging to the definite article, so y nedd became yn edd, just as a napron became an apron in English [source].

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *nisdós, from *ni (down) & *sed (sit) = “where [the bird] sits down” [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include neth (sprout, bud) in Albanian, նստել [nəsˈtel] (to sit, sink, fit, shrink) in Armenian, lizdas (nest) in Lithuanian, hnízdo (nest) in Czech, नीड़ (nīṛ – nest) in Hindi, nest, nidate (to become implanted in) and niche in English, Nest (nest, small village) in German, and nido (nest, home, nursery school) in Italian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	fóir = nest, lair, den
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	fóir, foir = site, area, confine, abode
Irish (Gaeilge)	fáir = hen’s nest, bed, lair fáireog = (little) nest (for hen)

Etymology: uncertain [source].

Shameful Disgrace

20th August 202527th August 2025 By Simon

Words for shame, disgrace and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*meblā = shame, disgrace
Old Irish (Goídelc)	mebal, mebul [ˈmʲe.βal / ˈmʲe.βul] = shame, disgrace
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	mebal, mebul, meabhal = (a cause of) shame, a disgrace, deciet, guile, treachery
Irish (Gaeilge)	meabhal = shame, disgrace, deceit, treachery meabhlach = shameful, disgraceful, deceitful, treacherous, deceptive, illusory, seductive, beguiling meabhlaigh = to shame disgrace, deceive, betray, seduce meabhlaire = deceitful, guileful person, deceiver, betrayer, seducer meabhlaireacht = (act of) deceiving, deceptiong, treachery meabhlú = deception, betrayal, seduction
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	meabhal = perfidy, shame, reproach, fraud, deceit (archaic) meabhalach = deceitful, treacherous, fraudulent, shameful (archaic)
Proto-Brythonic	*meβl = shame, disgrace
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	mefyl, mewil, meuil, meuel, meuyl, mefl = shame, disgrace, dishonour, reproach, insult meuyluethyant = shameful failing or fault meuylhaet = reproach, abuse mefylwr = scoundrel, rascal meuyllwryayth, mefylwryaeth = (cause of) shame, disgrace, dishonour
Welsh (Cymraeg)	mefl = shame, disgrace, dishonour, reproach, insult, blemish, blot, fault, flaw meflu = to disgrace, put to shame, stain, spoil, soil, foul meflfethiant = shameful failing or fault meflhau = to disgrace, put to shame meflus = faulty, imperfect meflwriaeth = (cause of) shame, disgrace, dishonour
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	meul, meaul = mischief, bad luck
Cornish (Kernewek)	mewl = bad luck, misfortune

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *mebʰ- (to blame). Words from the same root include αξιόμεμπτος (axiómemptos – reprehensible, blameworthy) and άμεμπτος (ámemptos – spotless, unblemished) in Greek [source].

Proto-Celtic	*metom = blight, decay, shame, failure, error
Old Irish (Goídelc)	meth = blight, decay, decline, wasting
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	meth, meath = decay, blight, wasting, failure
Irish (Gaeilge)	meath = decline, decay, fail, deteriorate, to waste, fritter away meathán = weakling, sickly person, coward meathlaigh = to decline, decay, fail, deteriorate, degenerate meatacht = decline, decay, craveness, cowardice meathlaigh = to decline, decay, fail, deteriorate, degenerate meathlaíocht = decline, decay, failure
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	meath [mɛ] = fading (away), degenerating, degeneration, taunting, jeering, jibing meathach [mɛ.əx] = degenerate meathaichte [mɛ.ɪçdʲə] = degenerate, decayed
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	meth = failure , failing, deficiency, fault, defect, error, mistake methyant, methiant = failure, mistake, error, failing, defect methu, methy = to fail, be unsuccessful, be mistaken
Welsh (Cymraeg)	meth [meːθ] = failure , failing, deficiency, fault, defect, error, mistake methadwy = faillible, perishable methfodd = failing, fault methiad = failure, insolvency methiant = failure, mistake, error, failing, defect methu = to fail, be unsuccessful, be mistaken
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	medh, mêdh = shame, bashfulness medha = to be ashamed
Cornish (Kernewek)	meth = shame perthi meth = to be ashamed (of) methardak = stalemate methek = ashamed, bashful, shy methus = embarrassing, shameful
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	meplaom = to be ashamed
Middle Breton	mezz, mez = shame mezeguez = confusion mezus = ashamed, shameful, disgraceful
Breton (Brezhoneg)	mezh [ˈmeːs] = shame mezhadenn = affront, insult, slight mezhañ = to intimidate, bully, cow mezhata = to confuse, confound, embarras mezhegezh = confusion mezhek [ˈmeː.zɛk] = ashamed, shameful, disgraceful mezhekadenn = humiliation mezhekaat = to humiliate mezhus [ˈmeː.zys] = ashamed, shameful, disgraceful

Etymology: uncertain – possibly from a non-Indo-European language, or related to maoth (tender, soft, weak) in Irish, which comes from Proto-Celtic *moytos (tender), from Proto-Indo-European *meyh₁- (mild, soft), from which we get mite (mild, moderate, meek) in Italian, and mitigation in English [source].

Proto-Celtic	*nāryā = modesty, magnanimity
Old Irish (Goídelc)	náire [ˈn̪aː.ɾʲe] = shame, shyness, reluctance
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	náire, náre, naire = shamefacedness, bashfulness, diffidence, backwardness, reluctance, modesty, generosity náirech = diffident, shy, modest náiríne = shame, affronted modesty innáire [ˈin͈aːrʲə] = modesty, generosity
Irish (Gaeilge)	náire [ˈn̪ˠɑːɾʲə / ˈn̪ˠaːɾʲə] = shame, sense of shame, decency, modesty náireach [ˈn̪ˠɑːɾʲəx] = shameful, bashful, modest, diffident náireachán = bashful, diffident, person náirigh = to shame náiriú = shame, disgrace
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	nàire [n̪ˠaːrʲə] = embarrassment, shame, disgrace, ignominy, bashfulness nàireach [n̪ˠaːrʲəx] = shameful, bashful, coy, modest nàireachadh [n̪ˠaːrʲəxəɣ] = (act of) shaming nàireil [n̪ˠaːrʲal] = disgraceful, shameful nàirich [n̪ˠaːrʲɪç] = shame, make ashamed!
Manx (Gaelg)	nearey = disgrace, shame nearaghey, naaraghey = to abash, disgrace, shame naareydagh = shameful, scandalous

Etymology: possibly related to Proto-Celtic *nāro- (noble, great-hearted), from Proto-Indo-European *h₂enr (manly strength) [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	méla = disgrace, shame
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	méla, meala, mela = shame, disgrace, discomfiture, mortification mélach = ashamed, disappointed
Irish (Gaeilge)	méala [ˈmʲeːlˠə] = humiliation, ignominy, grief, sorrow méalach [ˈmʲeːlˠəx] = lamentable, lamenting, sorrowful, humiliating, fault-finding méalacht = (state of) sorrow, lamentation méalaigh = to humble, humiliate, bring to grief
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	mèala = reproach, grief

Etymology: unknown

Each & Every

24th July 2025 By Simon

Words for each, every, all and related things in Celtic languages.

Each & Every

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷākʷos = everyone, everybody, each, every
Transalpine Gaulish	papos = each, every (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cách, cach [kax] = each, every, all, everyone cach la céin = one at a time cechtar = both, each
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cach, cech [kax / kex] = each, every, all, cách, cach = the one, each, everyone, all, the rest cechtar = each (of), both (of), either (of)
Irish (Gaeilge)	gach [ɡax / ɡɑx] = every, each, everything gach rud = everything gach aon, gach uile = every gach aon duine = each, every, person, everybody gach bliain, gach uile bhliain = every year ceachtar [ˈcaxt̪ˠəɾˠ] = either, one or other of two
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	gach [gax] = every, each, all, per gach a chèile = each other gach bliadhna = every year, annually gach dùrachd = best regards, yours sincerely gach pearsa = per capita gach ràith = every season, seasonally, every quarter, quarterly gach rud = everything gach uile [gax ulə] = every, each
Manx (Gaelg)	dagh [dax] = each, every, both, singular gagh = each, every dagh blein, gagh blein = annually, yearly dagh laa, gagh laa = daily, every day gagh-laa = ordinary dagh ooilley, dagh un = every dagh unnane = every one dagh ynnyd, dagh ooilley ard, dagh ooilley raad = everywhere dagh ooilley nhee = everything dagh ooilley phersoon = everybody dagh ooilley raad = everywhere cagh = all, everyone, everybody cagh elley = everyone else, rest cagh yt cheilley = reciprocal
Proto-Brythonic	pọb, pāpos = every, each (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	paup = every, each
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pop, pob = every, each, all, all manner of, every type of pobed = entirety pobua, pop wa, pob va = everywhere, every place pob uann, popmann, pop mann = everywhere, every place, every part pob un, pob vn, pobun everyone, everybody, each one, every (single) one, all
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pob [poːb] = every, each, all, all manner of, every type of pob dim, popeth = everything pobfa, pob fa = everywhere, every place pob lle poblle = every place, everywhere poblleath, pobmanrwydd = ubiquity, omnipresence pobman, pob man = everywhere, every place, every part pobun, pob un everyone, everybody, each one, every (single) one, all
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pép, péb = every one pob, póp, pôb, pôp, pûb, pûp = every, all pop, pób = every, each pepynag, pepenag = whatsoever, whatever
Cornish (Kernewek)	peub, pob = all, everybody, everyone pub = each, every pub eur = always pub huni = everybody, everyone pub le = everywhere pub pres, pub prys, pub termyn = always, all the time pub tra, puptra = everything pub dedhyek, pubdedhyek = daily pubonan, pubonen = everybody
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	pop = each, every
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	pep = each, every pep vnan = each and every, everybody, everyone
Breton (Brezhoneg)	pep [pep] = each, every a bep eil = alternatively in turns bemdez [ˈbɛmde(s)] = every day bemnoz [ˈbɛmnos] = every night pep hini, pep unan = each and every, everybody, everyone (a) pep lec’h = everywhere pep tro = every time

Etymology: either from Proto-Indo-European *kʷo-h₃kʷ-os, from *kʷós (which, what) and *h₃kʷ-os (to see), or from PIE *kʷeh₂-kʷos [Source]. Words from the same roots possibly include how in English, hoe (how) in Dutch, hve (how, like as) in Icelandic, con (with, together) in Italian, com (with, against, together) in Portuguese, cu in Romanian, and cual (like, as, in the manner of) in Spanish [Source].
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Proto-Celtic	*olyos = all
Gaulish	ollos = everything, everyone (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	(h)uile, (h)ule [(h)ˈulʲe] = all, whole
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	uile [ˈulʲə] = all, every, the whole, everyone
Irish (Gaeilge)	uile [ˈɪlʲə / ˈɛlʲə] = all, every, whole, wholly, entirely uilechoiteann = general, universal uilechumhachtach = omnipotent, almighty uilefheasach = omniscient uilefhóinteach = all-purpose uileghabhálach = comprehensive, compendious, exhaustive uileláithreach = omnipresent, ubiquitous uiliteach = omnivorous
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	uile [ulə] = all, every, entire, total uil-fhiosrach = all-knowing, omniscient uile-amasach [ɯl aməsəx] = all-purpose uile-bhiast = monster uile-chinnteachd = surety, certainty uile-choitcheann [ulə xɔhdʲçən̪ˠ] = universal uileas [uləs] = all, every
Manx (Gaelg)	ooilley [ulʲə / ulʲu] = all, whole, entire, everyone, everybody ooilley cooidjagh all together ooilley kiart = all right, alright, OK ooilley dy lieragh = altogether ooilley mygeart = all around, everywhere, round about, rampant ooilley-niartal = almighty ooilley smaghtagh = totalitarian
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	hol = all, the whole, everything, everyone
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	oll, holl = all, the whole, everything, everyone, holla()l hollaul, hollawl, hollaỽl = whole, complete, entire holl gyuoethaỽc, hollgyuoethauc, hollgyuoethawc = almighty, omnipotent, all-powerful
Welsh (Cymraeg)	holl, oll [hoːɬ] = all, the whole, everything, everyone, entire, complete, total, completely, entirely oll yn oll = all in all (h)ollfydol = cosmic, universal, global (h)ollgyfoethog = almighty, omnipotent, all-powerful (h)ollol = whole, complete, entire (h)olloldeb, hollolrwydd = universality, generality (h)ollwybodol = omniscient, all-knowing, know-alls (h)ollysydd = omnivore
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	oll, ol = all, every olgallusec, olgalluster = almighty
Cornish (Kernewek)	oll = all, every, entirely, everything oll termyn = enduring, etermal, everlasting olldalghus = comprehensive, global ollgallos = omnipotence ollgallosek, ollgallojek = almighty ollgemmyn, ollgebmyn = general ollgompassus = holistic ollvys, ollves = universe ollvysel, ollvesel = global, universal
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	oll = everything, everyone
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	holl, hol, oll = everything, everyone
Breton (Brezhoneg)	holl [ɔl] = everything, everyone, completely, totally holl-razh = completely hollad = total hollat = global, total hollbad = perpetual, permanent hollegezh = generality hollegour [ɔˈleːɡur] = generalist hollek [ˈɔlːek] = general, uncountable hollved [ˈɔlvet] = universe

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂olyos, from *h₂el- (beyond, other) [source]. Words from the same roots include altro (other, another, more, further) in Italian, autre (another) in French, otro (other, another) in Spanish, allur (all, everybody) in Icelandic, al (all, any) in Danish, and all and alter(native) in English [source]

Who?

11th July 2025 By Simon

Words for who and related things in Celtic languages.

Who?

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷei = who
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cía, ce, ci, cia = who? what? where? how? although, if cía airet? = how long? cía airm? = where? cía chruth? = how? cía méit? = how many? how much?
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cía, cia, cá = who? what? how? where? cia airm? = what place? where? cia eret? cia airet? = how long?
Irish (Gaeilge)	cé? [keː] = who? whom? cén? [ceːnˠ] = what? which? cén áit? = where? at what place? cén chaoi? = how? in what whay? cén dóigh? = how? in what way? cén fáth? = why? for what reason? cén uair? = when? at what time? cér(b)? = who is? cér(bh)? = who was?
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cò [koː] = who(m)? where? ge be cò = whoever, whosoever cia? [kʲa] = how? what? which? who? cia mheud? [kʲaˈviəd] = how many? cia ás? [kʲaˈas] = whence? where from? cia minig? = how often? cia fhada? [kʲaˈadə] = how long? cia airson? = why?
Manx (Gaelg)	quoi [kwəi] = who? whom? which, whichever, who quoi erbee = who(so)ever, whom(so)ever quoi s’lesh = whose quoi jeu? = which one?
Proto-Brythonic	*puɨ = who (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	pui = what
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pwy, puy = who(m), whose, what, which, how pwy … pynac = whichever, whatever
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pwy [puːɨ̯ / pʊi̯] = who(m), whose, what, which, how pwy bynnag = who(so)ever, whichever, what(so)ever pwy … bynnag = whichever, whatever pwyma, pwyna = what-d’you-call-him/her
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pyw, pu = who, whom, which pywpenag, pwy-penag, piwha bennac = whosoever
Cornish (Kernewek)	piw [piˑʊ] = who piw penag / pynag [piˑʊ] = whoever
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	piu = who
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	piu = who
Breton (Brezhoneg)	piv [ˈpiw] = who piv bennak = whoever piv din-me = thing, thingamajig, whatstheirface (a person whose name is unknown)

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kʷís (who, what, which, that) [source]. Words from the same root include how, whether and status quo in English, hoe (how) in Dutch, hver (every, each, everyone) in Danish, qui (who, whom, which, that) in French, chi (who, whom, whoever) in Italian, com (with, against, alongside, together) in Portuguese, and który (what, which, that, who) in Polish [source].

Credible Belief

12th June 202512th June 2025 By Simon

Today we’re looking at the words for belief, religion and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with an * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kreddīti = to believe
Old Irish (Goídelc)	creitid [ˈkʲrʲedʲiðʲ] = to believe creitem = belief, faith
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	creitid, craitid = to believe, trust, give allegiance creitem = (act of) believing, being converted; belief, faith, religion; credit, credibility, good standing
Irish (Gaeilge)	creid [cɾʲɛdʲ / cɾʲɪdʲ] = to believe, give credence to, suppose creideamh = belief, faith, religion, creed creidiúint = credit creidiúnach = creditable, reputable, respectable creidiúnacht = creditableness, respectability creidiúnaí = creditor creidmheach = believer, believing, faithful creidte = credible
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	creid [krʲedʲ] = (to) believe, suppose creideadh [krʲedʲəɣ] = belief, creed, faith creideamh [krʲedʲəv] = belief, creed, faith creideas [krʲedʲəs] = faith, credit, credibility, credence creideasachd [krʲedʲəsəxg] = credibility creideasaiche [krʲedʲəsɪçə] = creditor creidmheach [krʲedʲvəx] = believer
Manx (Gaelg)	cred [kredʲ] = to believe credjuagh = believer, disciple, believing, believable credjue = belief, creed, conviction, faith, religion
Proto-Brythonic	*krėdid = to believe
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cred, cret, kred = belief, creed, religion, faith credaduy, credadwy = credible, trustworthy, genuine, authentic, certain sure, believed credaw, credu, credv = to believe, have faith in, trust
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cred = belief, creed, religion, faith, trust, oath, promise, integrity, fidelity, credit credadwy = credible, trustworthy, genuine, authentic, certain sure, believed crediniaeth = belief, opinion, religion, creed, faith, confidence, credulity credu [ˈkrɛdɨ̞ / ˈkreːdi] = to believe, have faith in, trust, give credit, be disposed, feel inclined
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	cred, crêd, cresy, cregy = belief, faith credgyans, credzhans, cregyans = the Creed, belief
Cornish (Kernewek)	krysi, kreji = to believe, think krysadow, kryjus = credible kryjans, krejyans = belief, religion kryjyk = religious
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	critim = to believe
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	cridiff, credyt, credaff = to believe
Breton (Brezhoneg)	krediñ [ˈkreː.dĩ] = to believe, dare kredad = credit kredañ = credenza, wardrobe kredapl = believable, likely kredekaat = to credit kredenn = belief, superstition kreder = believer, creditor kredig, kredik = credulous kredoniezh = caution

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *ḱreddʰh₁-éh₂ / *ḱréddʰh₁eti (to believe, trust) from *ḱḗr (heart) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include credible, credenza, credit, credo and incredible, in English, credere (to believe, think) in Italian, croire (to believe) in French, and creer (to believe, think, reckon) in Spanish [source].

Particularly Special

5th June 202520th June 2025 By Simon

Today we’re looking at the words for special, particular, different and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with an * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*ɸarekʷennom = extremity, end
Old Irish (Goídelc)	airchenn = certain, definite
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	airchenn, airchend = certain, fixed, definite, prominent, leading, chaste, leader, chief
Irish (Gaeilge)	airchinneach = hereditary steward of church lands
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	airchinneach = erenagh (monastic role)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	arpennic, arbennyc, arbennig, arbennic = principal, chief, main, foremost, supreme, excellent, wonderful, splendid, sacred, solemn, serious, chief, prince, leader, head arbenhicrỽyd = specialness, particularity, peculiarity arbennigyaỽl, arbenygaul = lord, chieftain, sovereign arbennedic = generous, noble
Welsh (Cymraeg)	arbennig [arˈbɛnɪɡ] = principal, chief, main, foremost, supreme, excellent, wonderful, splendid, sacred, solemn, serious, special, particular, peculiar, distinctive, specific, characteristic arbenig(i)aeth = speciality, expertise arbenigo = to make special, specify, denote, specialize arbenig(i)ol = special, particular, specific, distinct arbenigrwydd = specialness, particularity, peculiarity arbenigwr, arbenigydd = specialist, expert, authority
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	arbennec, arbednec = usual, customary
Cornish (Kernewek)	arbennik, arbednik = distinctive, particular, special arbenigel = specialist arbeniger, arbenigores specialist arbenikter = specialism, speciality yn arbennik = especially
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	arbennik = soft, tender
Breton (Brezhoneg)	arbennik [ar.ˈbɛ.nːik] = special, specialized, expert arbennigour = specialist, expert arbennikaat = to specialize arbennikaat = specialization, expertise, specializing arbennikaet = specialized, competent arbennikadur = specialization, expertise, specializing

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic ɸare- (for(e)-) and *kʷennom (head) [source]. Words from the same Proto-Celtic roots include arpent (acre, arpent – an old French unit of area or length) in French [source].

Irish (Gaeilge)	ar leith, faoi leith [ɛɾʲˈl̠ʲɛh / fˠiːˈl̠ʲɛh] = apart, separate(ly), several, distinct, remarkable, special
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	air leth = particular(ly), separate(ly), discrete(ly), individual(ly), apart, exceptional(ly)
Manx (Gaelg)	er lheh = special, specific, certain, distinctive, aloof, separate

Etymology: from Old Irish leth (side), from Proto-Celtic *letos or from Proto-Celtic *ɸletos (breadth, side). Words from the same Proto-Celtic roots include lled (breadth, width, part, half) in Welsh, led (wide, large, broad) in Breton, and les (breadth, width) in Cornish [source]. See the Halves and Sides Celtiadur post for more details.

Irish (Gaeilge)	speisialta [ˈsˠpʲɛʃiəl̪ˠt̪ˠə] = special speisialtacht = speciality speisialtóir = specialist speisialtóireacht = specializing, specialization
Welsh (Cymraeg)	sbesial = special, especially good

Etymology: from Middle English special(e) (exceptional, extraordinary, particular), from Old French especial (special, powerful, mighty), from Latin speciālis (specific), from speci(ēs) (kind, type, seeing, spectacle, appearance, display), from speciō (to observe, watch, look at), from Proto-Italic *spekjō (to observe, see), from Proto-Indo-European *spéḱyeti (to be looking at) [source].

Proto-Celtic	sani = apart from sanis = different
Old Irish (Goídelc)	sainredach = characteristic, peculiar
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	sainredach, sainredaig, sunnarthach = peculiar or belonging to, particular, special, set apart, specific, definite
Irish (Gaeilge)	sonrach = particular, specific sonraigh = particularize, specify, define; to perceive, distinguish sonraíoch = noticeable, remarkable, peculiar, extraordinary, abnormal,grotesque sonraíocht = specification sonrú = specification, notice, perception
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sònraichte [sɔːnrɪçdʲə] = specific, specified, stipulated, certain, special, defined, allocated, assigned, excellent, noted
Manx (Gaelg)	sonraghey = to specify
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	han = separation, divorce, different, other, (out) of, from
Welsh (Cymraeg)	hân = separation, divorce, different, other, (out) of, from
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	hanys = from thee
Cornish (Kernewek)	ahanav = from me ahanas = from you (sg) ahanodho = from him ahanedhi = from her ahanan = from us ahanowgh = from you (pl) anedha = from them
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	han = outside of, other than, different from
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	han = outside of, other than, different from
Breton (Brezhoneg)	han = outside of, other than, different from

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *senH- (apart, without, for oneself). Words from the same roots possibly include sunder in English, zonder (without) in Dutch, sondern (to separate, sunder) in German, sönder (broken, out of order) in Swedish, senza (without) in Italian, sans (without) in French, sin (without) in Spanish [source].

Captive Hostages

28th May 202513th September 2025 By Simon

Words for hostage, pledge and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with an * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*geistlos = hostage, bail
Gaulish	geistlus = hostage (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	gíall = a human pledge, hostage
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	gíall, gial, giall = a human pledge, hostage, jailer, act of yielding homage, obeying gíallacht, gíallnus = hostageship, captivity
Irish (Gaeilge)	giall [ɟiəl̪ˠ] = hostage, (human) pledge giallach = having or taking hostages giallacht = hostageship, bondage
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	giall [gʲiəl̪ˠ] = hostage, pledge giallach [gʲiəl̪ˠəx] = pertaining to or abounding in hostages / pledges
Manx (Gaelg)	gioal = pledge, pawn, stake, wager, bet, bond geulys, geuleydys = bondage
Proto-Brythonic	*guɨstl = hostage, bail
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gustil, gustel, guyst(e)l, gvystl, gwystyl = pledge, security, surety, guarantee, earnest guystlvy, gustelau, gusthaf = to give pledge or assurance, guarntee, pledge, pawn gwystlyryaeth, gwystloryaeth = suretyship, pledge, stake, pawn, mortgage
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gwystl [ɡwɨ̞sdl / ɡʊi̯sdl] = pledge, assurance, security, surety, guarantee, earnest, gage, pawn, hostage, wager, stake, bet, mortgage gwystl(i)ad = a pledging, a pawning gwystlo = to give pledge or assurance, guarntee, pledge, pawn gwystlchwarae = gambling gwystledig = pledge, bound, mortgaged gwystlor(i)aeth = suretyship, pledge, stake, pawn, mortgage gwystlwr, gwystlydd = mortgagor, pawnbroker
Old Cornish	guistel = hostage
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	guistel = hostage, pledge, surety
Cornish (Kernewek)	gostel = hostage, riot gostla = to pawn, wage
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	guistl = hostage
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	goestl = hostage, pledge goestlaff = to consecrate, dedicate, pledge, devote goestlet = pledged, dedicated, consecrated
Breton (Brezhoneg)	gouestl [ˈɡwestl] = hostage, pledge, guarantee, bail, surety gouestladur = commitment, offering gouestlaj = mortgage gouestlañ [ˈɡwestlã] = to bet, wager, guarantee, pledge, consecrate, dedicate, devote gouestlaoua = to bribe, buy, corrupt, grease the palm of gouestlaouañ = to bribe, corrupt gouestlet = pledged, dedicated, consecrated

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *gʰeydʰ- (to yearn for, to desire) [source]. Words from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Proto-Germanic *gīslaz (hostage), include gijzelen (to take hostage) in Dutch, Geisel (hostage) in German, gidsel (hostage) in Danish, gisslan (hostage) in Swedish, and kihlata (to betroth) in Finnish [source].

Words from the same PIE root include geisti (to desire, crave, covet, lust after) in Lithuanian, gaidīt (to wait, expect, anticipate) in Latvian, ждать (ždatʹ – to wait for, expect) in Russian, and geizen (to be miserly) in German [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	brága [ˈbraː.ɣɘ] = hostage, captive, prisoner
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	brága, brágha, brage [ˈbraːɣə] = captive, prisoner, hostage brágigdenas, braighdenus, braighdeanas = hostageship, captivity bráigtechas, braightechus = hostageship
Irish (Gaeilge)	brá [bˠɾˠɑː] = captive, hostage braighdeanach = captive, prisoner braighdeanas = captivity, bondage
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	bràigh [braːj] = captive, hostage bràighdeanas = bondage, captivity, slavery neach am bràighdeanas = captive, hostage

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *brāgants (neck, throat), from *brāg + *-ants (body part suffix), from Proto-Indo-European *gʷerh₃- (to swallow, devour, eat) [source]. The sense “captive” derives from the Middle Irish phrase gaibid ar brágait (to take captive: lit. “to take by the neck”) [source].

Words from the same PIE root include carnivore, devour, gargle, gorge, gurgle and voracious in English; gurgeln (to gargle, gurgle) in German; voractià (oracity, voraciousness) in Italian, and gerti (to drink, soak up, absorb) in Lithuanian [source].

The word for hostage in Manx is raane, which also means assurance, bail, bond, collateral, guarantee, pledge or surety [source]. Its etymology is not known [source].

Celtiadur

Exploring connections between Celtic languages

Category: Italian (italiano)

Childish Infants

What?

Awls & Bodkins

Nests

Shameful Disgrace

Each & Every

Who?

Credible Belief

Particularly Special

Captive Hostages