Barley

3rd October 20263rd October 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking into words meaning barley and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*yewos = barley, spelt
Old Irish (Goídelc)	eórna = barley
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	eórna, eorna = barley
Irish (Gaeilge)	eorna [ˈoːɾˠn̪ˠə / ˈɔːɾˠn̪ˠə] = barley (Hordeum vulgare) eornóg = (stick of) barley sugar
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	eòrna [jɔːr̪n̪ˠə] = barley Tir an Eòrna = Tiree, Uist eòrnaach [jɔːr̪n̪ˠəx] = barley-land, pertaining to or abounding in barley eòrnachan [jɔːr̪n̪ˠəxan] = knocking/beating stone (type of mortar, esp. for unhusking grain or malting barley) eòrnan [jɔːr̪n̪ˠan] = small barley (hordeum distichon)
Manx (Gaelg)	oarn = barley
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	yell = spelt
Breton (Brezhoneg)	yell = spelt yell-munut = emmer wheat, einkorn, Tartary buckwheat

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *yéwos (cereal, grain, barley, spelt), from *yew(h₁-) (to ripen, mature). Words from the same roots include jãvas (grain, cereal) in Lithuanian, جو (jaw – barley, grain) in Persian, जौ (hau – barley) in Hindi, овин (ovin – barn) in Russian, and jyvä (grain, kernel corn) in Finnish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*sasyos = rye
Celtiberian	*sas(s)ia = (?)
Gaulish	*(s)asyom = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	heyd, heyt, heid(d), haid = barley
Welsh (Cymraeg)	haidd [hai̯ð] = barley
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	haiz = barley
Cornish (Kernewek)	heydhen = barley heydhenlan = barley land heydhek = barley field
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	heiz, heizen(n) = barley
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	heiz = barley
Breton (Brezhoneg)	heiz = barley heizeg = barley field heizek = abundant in barley heizenn = grain of barley

Etymology: from PIE *sh₁-s-yo-s, from *seh₁- (to sow, to plant). The Catalan word xeixa (common wheat) comes from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Celtiberian [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include sēt (to sow) in Lithuanian, сеять (sejat’ – to sow, lose, squander, spread) in Russian, and disseminate, earn, season, seed, seminar and sow in English [source].

Proto-Celtic	ɸitu = corn, grain ɸitulandā = threshing floor, stackyard, granary
Gaulish	*itu = corn, grain (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	ith = corn, grain, seed itlann = a threshing floor, barn, granary, storehouse
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ith = corn, grain, seed ithlann, ithla, ithlu = a threshing floor, barn, granary, storehouse; a garden
Irish (Gaeilge)	ioth = corn, grain (literary) iothlainn = haggard, rickyard
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ioth [ih] = corn, grain iothlann [jul̪ˠən̪ˠ] = yard, farmyard, enclosure
Manx (Gaelg)	uhllin = farmyard, rickyard, stackyard, cornyard, haggard
Proto-Brythonic	ɨd = grain (?) ɨdlann = rickyard, stackyard, barnyard, granary (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	itlann = rickyard, stackyard, barnyard, granary
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	yt, id, yd = corn, grain, cereal ytlan, ydlan = rickyard, stackyard, barnyard, granary
Welsh (Cymraeg)	ŷd [ɨːd / iːd] = corn, grain, cereal ydlan = rickyard, stackyard, barnyard, granary yta = to harvest corn, to beg corn
Old Cornish	yd, ŷd = corn
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	ŷs, ys = corn
Cornish (Kernewek)	ys [ɪs] = corn, barley, cereals, wheat
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	esat = wheat (?)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	et, eth, yt, yth = wheat, cereal
Breton (Brezhoneg)	ed [ˈeːt] = wheat, corn, grain, cereal edeg = field of wheat or cereals edek = planted with wheat edenn = wheat grain eder = cereal grower, grain farmer ederezh = cereal farming

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *péy-tu-s / *pi-téw-s, from (to swell [with milk], to be swollen, fat) [source]. Words from the same roots may include piẽtūs (lunch, dinner, noon) in Lithuanian, píce (fodder) in Czech [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernehe, itk, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Binding Fastenings

9th July 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for binding, fastening and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	rigo- = to bind komrigā = binding, bond
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cuimrech [ˈku.β̃ʲɾʲəx] = binding, bond, fastening, fetter, captivity
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cuimrech, cuiṁbrech, cuibrech = act of binding, fastening, fettering, imprisoning, captivity, bond, fetter, chain
Irish (Gaeilge)	cuibhreach = binding, fetter, trammel cuibhrigh = bind, fetter
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cuibhreach [kɯivrəx] = chain, trammel cuibhreachadh [kɯivrʲəxəɣ] = (act of) binding, fettering, restricting, restriction cuibhreachail [kɯivrʲəxal] = limiting, restrictive
Proto-Brythonic	*korrɨɣ = thong (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	corruui = thong, lace, leather strap, rein
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	karrei = thong, lace, leather strap, rein
Welsh (Cymraeg)	carrai [ˈkara / ˈkarɛ] = thong, lace, leather strap, rein, leash
Cornish (Kernewek)	kevren = bond, link, share kevrenna = to share kevrennek, kevrenoges = participant, stakeholder, participating
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	comreg = tie, bond, connection (?)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	corre-enn, qévre, qevre = tie, bond, connection
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kevre [keːvre] = tie, bond, connection, link, agreement, alliance kevread = bond, league kevreadenn = hook-up, connection, link kevreañ = to connect, to join forces kevreded = federation, association, alliance

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *(H)reyǵ- (to bind, reach), possibly via Latin corrigia (shoelace, tie, thong whip) [source]. Words from the same roots include correggia (leather strap or belt, thong) in Italian, courroie (strap, belt, band, strip) in French [source].

Proto-Celtic	gem-, gem-eno-, *gemelo- = shackle, chain
Old Irish (Goídelc)	gemel = chain, fetter gébend = bond, fetter, captivity
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	gemel, gemeal = fetter, chain, gyve gemlech, geimhlech = a fettered person, a prisoner, a hostage, fettered, captive gébend = bond, fetter, captivity
Irish (Gaeilge)	geimheal = fetter, shackle, chain geimhleach = fettered person, captive, prisoner; fettered, captive, held in bondage geimhligh = fetter, shackle, chain géibheann [ˈɟeːvʲən̪ˠ] = bond, fetter, bondage, captivity, strait, difficulty, distress, need géibheannach [ˈɟeːvʲən̪ˠəx] = person in bonds, person in fetters, captive géibheannas = bondage, sore distress
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	geamhal = fetter, shackle, gyve geimheal = fetter, shackle, gyve geimhleach [gʲevləx] = fetter, captive, slave gèibhinn = fetter
Manx (Gaelg)	geuley = manacle, chain, bond, shackle geulaghey = manacle, chain, shackle, bind in chains geuleydagh = bondman, chain
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	gebin = fetter, shackle
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	geuyn, gefyn, gevyn = fetter, shackle, gyve, manacle, chain geuynnedig = shackled, fettered gefynnu = to shackle, fetter, manacle gevynnauc = shackled, fettered
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gefyn = fetter, shackle, gyve, manacle, chain gefynedig = shackled, fettered gefynnaf, gefynnu = to shackle, fetter, manacle, couple, link gefynnog = shackled, fettered

Etymology: from from Proto-Indo-European *gem- (to press, grasp) [source]. Words from the same roots include gyve (shackle or fetter, especially for the leg; to shackle, to fetter, to chain) in English, жать (žatʹ – to press, squeeze, lift) in Russian, ožeti (to squeeze) in Slovenian, ždímat (to wring) in Czech, and γεμίζω (gemízo – to fill, stuff) in Greek [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	sibal = clasp, pin
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	sibal(l) = a clasp, buckle, pin
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	fual = fetter, gyve, shackle, bond
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	hual = fetter, gyve, shackle, bond hualu = to fetter, manacle, shackle, chain, hobble, restrict, restrain hualawc, hualoc, hualog, hualawg = fettered, shackled, trammelled, tethered
Welsh (Cymraeg)	hual = fetter, gyve, shackle, bond, hobble, restriction, restraint, check, trammel, hindrance, impediment hualaf, hualu = to fetter, manacle, shackle, chain, hobble, restrict, restrain hualedig = fettered or manacled, shackled, tethered hualog = fettered, shackled, trammelled, tethered
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	fual, fu, hual = fetter, shackle
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	hual = shackle hualaff = to hinder, impede, obstruct
Breton (Brezhoneg)	hual = shackle, leg irons, anti-theft device hualañ [hyˈɑːlã] = to shackle, put in irons, subjugate, subdue hualet = hindered dishualañ [di.syˈɑː.lã] = to emancipate, deliver, liberate, unshackle

Etymology: possibly from or related to Latin fibula (clasp, buckle, brooch) [source]. Words from the same roots include sivella (buckle) in Catalan, fibbia (buckle, clasp) in Italian, and hebilla (buckle, clasp) in Spanish [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

A Stack of Heaps

7th May 20267th May 2026 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at words for heap, pile, stack and related words, in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*dasti- = heap, pile
Gaulish	Condate = Condé (a place in France)
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	daiss, daise, dassaib, daisib = heap, pile, rick, stack (esp. of corn) tegdais, tegdas, techdais = house, dwelling, mansion, room, apartment, tabernacle, church
Irish (Gaeilge)	dais = heap, stack (literary) teaghais, teaghdhais house, dwelling, tabernacle, church, room, apartment
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dais [daʃ] = heap, pile, (bread loaf-shaped) rick, stack dais-fheòir = haystack, hayrick dais-eòrna = stack/rick of barley dasieadh [daʃəɣ] = (act of) heaping, piling up, making a rick or stack taigheadas [tɤjədəs] = residence, housing, housekeeping
Manx (Gaelg)	dash = small pile, heap
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	das, dais = rick, stack, mow, heap, pile das(s)wrn = heap, pile, rick
Welsh (Cymraeg)	das = rick, stack, mow, heap, pile das (o) wair = hayrick, haystack das (o) fawn = peat stack, turf pile dasag, dasu = to stack, rick, pile, heap up dasiad = a ricking daswl = pile, stack daswr = one who stacks, ricks, piles up or heaps up daswrn = heap, pile, rick
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	tasurn = a pile of wood, a wood-rick
Cornish (Kernewek)	das = stack, rick das wora = haystack, hayrick dasa = to stack
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	desi = pile (?)
Breton (Brezhoneg)	tes = stacking, pile tesañ = to pile up, stacking tesenn = stack, pile

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *dʰeh₁- (to do, put, place) [source]. Words from the same PIE root possibly include дело (delo – affair, matter) in Russian, dáil (tryst, betrothal, legislature) in Irish, Ort (place, location) in German, odd, family and theme in English, and hacer (to do, make) in Spanish [source].

Proto-Celtic	karnos, karnom = heap of stones, cairn, tomb, horn, antler
Gaulish	karnon = horn karnuātus = horned
Old Irish (Goídelc)	carn = heap, pile
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	carn, carnd = heap, mound, hillock carna(ig)id, carnait, carnaigit = to heap up, pile up
Irish (Gaeilge)	carn [kɑːɾˠn̪ˠ / kaːɾˠn̪ˠ] = heap, pile, cairn, great amount carnach = full of cairns, made up in heaps, cumulative carnadh = accumulation carnán [ˈkɑːɾˠn̪ˠɑːn̪ˠ] = (small) heap, mound
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	càrn [kaːrˠn̪ˠ] = cairn, heap of stones, pile (up), stack of corn càrnach [kaːrˠn̪ˠəx] = rocky, stony càrnadh [kaːrˠn̪ˠəɣ] = (act of) heaping, piling (up), hoarding, heap, pile (up), accumulating, accumulation
Manx (Gaelg)	carn = heap, cairn, stack of stone carnagh = cumulative carnane = heap, mound, dump, cairn, rampart carnaneagh = heaped, piled up, cumulus, cumuliform
Proto-Brythonic	*karn = a pile of stones, a cairn
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	carn, karn = cairn, barrow, tumulus, mound, rock, heap, pile carned(d), karned = cairn, tumulus, mound, heap, pile, ruin
Welsh (Cymraeg)	carn [karn] = cairn, barrow, tumulus, mound, rock, heap, pile; drinking horn, handle carnedd [ˈkarnɛð] = cairn, tumulus, mound, heap, pile, ruin carneddaf, carneddu = to heap, pile, amass, accumulate carneddog, carneddol = abounding with heaps of stones, rocky carnen = a small cairn or tumulus
Old Cornish	carn =
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	carn = a rock, a rocky place, a high rock, a shelf in the sea, a heap of stones, the hilt, handle of an instrument
Cornish (Kernewek)	karn = rock-pile, tor, carn, heap of rock karnedh = cairn
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	carn = cairn, tumulus, horn (?)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	carn = cairn, tumulus, horn
Breton (Brezhoneg)	karn = cairn, tumulus, horn

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *ḱerh₂- (head, top, horn) [source]. Words from the same roots include cairn in English and Scots, procrastinate, cranium and giraffe in English, corne (horn) in French and krowa (cow) in Polish [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Shearing Fleeces

1st May 20261st May 2026 By Simon

Words for fleece, shearing and related things in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic	*knawī = fleece
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cnaí = fleece
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cnaí, cnai, cnái = fleece
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cnuachd [krũə̃çgʲ] = lump, head, brow, forehead, shock (of hair)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cnu, cnuf, knu = fleece, clipping, a shearing cnaif, knaif = a shearing, clipping, carnage, fleece, shred
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cnu(f) = fleece cnufiaf, cnufio = to wrap up fleeces after shearing cnu(f)og = woolly, bushy, fleecy, fleeced, fleece-like cnuwch = bush of hair or fur, tuft, periwig; gammon of bacon, hock cnaif = a shearing, clipping, carnage, fleece, shred cneif(i)af, cneif(i)o = to shear, fleece, shave, clip, reap
Middle Cornish (Cernewec / Kernuak)	cneu, cnêu = a fleece
Cornish (Kernewek)	knew = fleece
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	creon = fleece
Breton (Brezhoneg)	krew, kreoñ = fleece kreoñañ = to cover oneself with fleece kreoñasenn = mop of hair kreoñek = (one) who has a fleece

Etymology: possibly related to Proto-Celtic *knā-yo- (to bite, chew) [source].

Proto-Celtic	*luxsmos = bare
Old Irish (Goídelc)	lomm [ˈl̪om] = bare lommraid = to shear off, strip off, cut off
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lomm, lom = bare, naked, smooth, exact, threadbare lommrad, lommairt, lomra, lomrad = act of stripping, making bare, act of shearing (sheep), fleece, act of plundering, (literary) extract
Irish (Gaeilge)	lom [l̪ˠəumˠ / l̪ˠomˠ] = bare thing, bareness, openness, exposure, nakedness, poverty lomadh = baring, shearing, stripping, denudation, improvishment, fleecing lomair = to shear, fleece, denude, despoil lomra = fleece, mop (of hair) lomrach = fleecy, woolly lomrachán = shorn sheep, naked person, poor, ill-clad person lomracht = fleeciness, woolliness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lom [l̪ˠɔum~l̪ˠuimə] = bare, naked, nude, bleak, plain, unadorned, defenceless, destitute, gaunt, meagre, threadbare, leafless lomadair [l̪ˠomədɪrʲ] = (act of) shearer, shearing, shave lomadh [l̪ˠoməɣ] = (act of) shaving, shearing, shave lomair [l̪ˠomɛrʲ] = fleece lomaire [l̪ˠomɪrʲə] = shearer, mower
Manx (Gaelg)	lhome = bare, nude, meagre, naked, bald, spare loamragh = fleecy, fleeced, woolly loamrey = fleece, wool, shear, shearing, fell loamyr = shear lommyrt = shearing, shear, clipping
Proto-Brythonic	*llum = bare (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llum, llwm, llom = devoid, bare, barren, naked, threadbare, worn, ragged
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llwm = devoid, bare, barren, naked, threadbare, worn, ragged
Cornish (Kernewek)	lomm, lobm = bare, naked, unproductive lommhe, lobmhe = to bare, to strip bare lomder = bareness
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	lom = drop
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	loum, lom = drop
Breton (Brezhoneg)	lomm [lɔmː] = drop, sip (of drink), modest quantity, insignificant, nothing lomm-ha-lomm = little by little, step by step lommig [ˈlɔ̃mːik] = small drop, modest quantity, insignificant

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *lewp- (to strip, peel). Words from the same roots include lupt (to peel, eat) in Latvian, and maybe loupit (to plunder, to rob) in Czech, and лупить (to peel, beat, thrash, fleece) in Russian [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Geriafurch, TermOfis

Shields

17th December 202517th December 2025 By Simon

Words for shield and related things in Celtic languages.

Shady shadows

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*skētos = shield
Old Irish (Goídelc)	scíath [skaːθ] = shield
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	scíath, sciath, sgéithe = shield, buckler, fighting-man, warrior, protection, defence, safeguard, protector, guardian
Irish (Gaeilge)	sciath = shield, protection, cover, protector, screen sciathach = having/bearing a shield, left-handed sciathbhrat = (safety) screen sciathóg = shield-shaped basket, container or lid made of plaited osiers or straw
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sgiath [sgʲiə] = shield sgiathach [sgʲiəhəx] = abounding in shields sgiathag [sgʲiəhag] = little shield sgiathachan [sgʲiə.əxan] = lid
Manx (Gaelg)	skaa, skae = shield
Proto-Brythonic	*skuïd‎ = shield (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ysgwyt, ysgwyd, yscwyd, yscwyt, ysgỽyt = shield, buckler, escutcheon, defender, protection, refuge yscwydaỽc = (one) bearing a shield
Welsh (Cymraeg)	ysgwyd = shield, buckler, escutcheon, defender, protection, refuge (y)sgwydog = (one) bearing a shield
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	scos = shield
Cornish (Kernewek)	skoos = shadow, reflection
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	scoet = shield, escutcheon, badge
Breton (Brezhoneg)	skoed [ˈskweːt] = shield, escutcheon, badge skoedad = shield strike skeudus = rich in coins

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *skeyt-, from *skey- (to cut separate) [source]. Words from the same root include escutcheon (a coat of arms) in English, shqyt (shield) in Albanian, écu (shield) in French, щит (shield, sluice-gate, panel, tortoise-shell) in Russian, and escudo (shield, old Portuguese currency) in Portuguese [source].

What?

12th November 202512th November 2025 By Simon

Words for what? which? who? where? and related things in Celtic languages.

What?

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷid? = what?
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cid? = what? cote, cate, catte [ˈko.d̠ʲe] = of what sort is …? what is …?
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cote, coteeet, codde, cate, cati, cáte = what (is)?
Irish (Gaeilge)	cad? [kad̪ˠ] = what? where? (in Munster) cad é? [kəd̪ˠˈeː] = what? (in Connacht & Ulster) cad é mar (atá tú)? = how (are you)? (in Ulster) céard? [ceːɾˠd̪ˠ] = what? (in Connacht) goidé? [ɡəˈtʲeː] = what? (in Connacht & Ulster) cad chuige? [kɑt̪ˠ ˈxɪɟɪ / kəˈt̪ˠiɟə] = why? (in Mayo,& Ulster) cad ina thaobh? [ˌkɑn̪ˠəˈheːvˠ] = why? (in Munster)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ciod? [kʲid] = what? ciod air bith = whichever, whatever ciod e? = what? ciod thuige? [kʲid hugʲə] = why? dè? [dʲeː] = what? who? dè man? dè mar? [deː man / dʲeː mar] = how?
Manx (Gaelg)	cre? = what? cre fa? = why? cre wooad? = how much? quoid? = how many? how much?
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	pa? = what? which?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pa? py? = what? which? paham? pam? = why? reason, cause, question
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pa? [paː] = what? which? paham? pam? = why? reason, cause, question pa bryd? = when? at what time? pa un? p’un? = who(m)? which (one)?
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pe? pa? py? = what? which? where? pa le? = where place? where? pahan = what perag? prâg? = for what? wherefore? why? pattel? patla? fattel? fatla? = how? by what means? pe? pa? py? =
Cornish (Kernewek)	py? pe? = what? which? py lies? = how many? pyth? = what?, that which ple? = where? prag? = why? what for? fatla? = how?
Old Breton	pe? = what?
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	pe? pé? = what? peguement? pe quement? = how much? how many? pe en lech? = where? penaus? penos? = how? perac? pe-rac? = why? petra? = who? what?
Breton (Brezhoneg)	pe? [peː] = which one? pegeit? [peˈɡɛjt] = how long? how far? pegement? [pe.ˈɡẽ.mːɛnt] = how much? how many? pegoulz? [pe.ˈɡuls] = when? pehini? [peˈ(h)ĩːni] = which one? pelec’h? [peˈlɛːx] = where? penaos? [pẽ.ˈnɔːs] = how? perak? [pe.ˈrɑːk] = why? peseurt? [peˈsøʁt] = what? what kind? petra? [ˈpe.tʁa] = who? what?

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kʷid (what? which?) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include çë (what?) in Albanian, kas (that, which, who) in Latvian, что (što – that, what, which) in Russian, che (what, which) in Italian, ¿qué? (what? which?) in Spainish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*kʷei? = who?
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cía = what? where? who? how? if, although cía airet? = how long? cía airm? cairm? airm? = where? cía chruth? = how? cía méit? = how many? how much?
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cía? ce? ci? = who? what? how? where?
Irish (Gaeilge)	cá? = what? how? where? cá hait? = (at) what place? where? cá huair? = at what hour? when? cá fhad? = how long? cá mhéad? = how much? how much? cé? = who? cén? = what? which?
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cò? [koː] = who(m)? where? cò idir = whoever cò ann? = wherein? cò as? [ko as] = where from?
Manx (Gaelg)	quoi? [kwəi] = who? whom? which? whichever, who? quoi erbee = who(so)ever, whom(so)ever quoi jeu? = which one? quoid? c’wooad? = how many? how much?
Proto-Brythonic	*puɨ? = who?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pwy? = who(m)? what? pwy bynnac, pwybynnag = whoever
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pwy? [puːɨ̯ / pʊi̯] = who(m)? what? pwy bynnag = whoever
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pew? pyw? p(y)u? piwa? = who? pywpenag, piwha bennac, piwa bennac, pyu penagh = who(s)ever
Cornish (Kernewek)	piw? [piˑʊ] = who? piw penag, piw pynag = whoever piw? = who?
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	piu? = who?
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	piu? piou? = who? piupennac, piu pennac, piou bennac = whoever
Breton (Brezhoneg)	piv? [piw] = who? piv bennak = whoever pivelezh = identity

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kʷís (who? what? which, that) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include ca (than, as) in Romanian, hve (how, like, as) in Icelandic, how and when in English, and hoe (how) in Dutch [source].

Ashen Embers

6th August 2025 By Simon

Words for ash, embers, cinders and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	loutus, loutwos, *loutwis = ash (from a fire)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	lúaith = ashes, dust lúaithred = ashes, dust
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lúaith, luaith = ashes, dust lúaithne, luaithne = speck of ash lúaithred, luaithred = ashes, dust lúaithreda, luaitherda = dusty lúaithremail = ashen lúaithremán = creature of dust
Irish (Gaeilge)	luaith [l̪ˠuə(ç) / l̪ˠui̯] = ashes luaitheartha = ashen, dusty luaithghríosach = hot ashes luaithreach = ashes, dust luaithreadán = ashtray luaithreamhán = ashes, heap of ashes luaithrigh = sprinkle with ashes luaithriúil = ashy, ashen Céadaoin an Luaithrigh = Ash Wednesday
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	luath [ˈl̪ˠuə] = ash(es) luaithre [ˈl̪ˠuərʲə] = ash(es), dust luaithreach [ˈl̪ˠuərʲɪç] = ash(es), dust luaithreachadh = (act of) turning to ash luaithreadh = (act of) throwing ashes, turning to dust/ash(es), ash(es), dust luaithrich = turn to ash!
Manx (Gaelg)	leoie [ləːi̯] = ash, dross leoireydane = ashtray lorgaghey, shlig-leoie = to drive (on/along), to urge on, urging leoieagh = ashy leoiragh = ashy, dusty
Proto-Brythonic	*llʉdw = ash(es) (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	lludu, llvdw, lludw, llutw, llytw = ash(es), cinders, embers lludwaw, llutwaw = to reduce to ashes, burn down, incinerate
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llwdw, lludu [ˈɬɨ̞dʊ / ˈɬiːdu] = ash(es), cinders, embers, lava, ruins or remains, shattered hopes llwdwo, lludio = to reduce to ashes, burn down, incinerate llwdwog = full of ashes or embers, ashy llwdwol = ash-like, tending to reduce to ashes llwdw du coal dust llwdw sebonog = potash
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	lusow, losow, lidzhu = ashes, or the remains of anything burnt
Cornish (Kernewek)	lusu = ash (from a fire) lusuegyn, lujuegyn = ashtray lusuen, lujuen = ember, piece of ash
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	ludu = ash
Breton (Brezhoneg)	ludu [ˈlyːdy] = ash, fertilizer ludua = to buy / look for ash luduan, luduañ = to incinerate ludueg = ashtray, homebody luduek = covered in ash, ashen luduenn = Cinderella luduer = incinerator, ash merchant luduet = reduced to ashes

Etymology: uncertain, possibly from from Proto-Indo-European *lewh₃- (to wash), or from PIE *lew- (dirt) [source]

Old Irish (Goídelc)	smál, smól, smúal = ashes, ember, live coal, blemish
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	smál, smól, smúal, smual = ember, glowing coal, fire, ashes, dross, blemish, taint
Irish (Gaeilge)	smól = live coal, ember, smouldering fire; a burnt-out or charred object smólachán = smouldering, charred, material smóladán = snuffers, lamp-scissors
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	smal [smal̪ˠ] = blemish, stain, impurity, spot, speck, smudge smòlach = ember, thrush

Etymology: uncertain [source], possibly from Proto-Indo-European *melh₂- (to grind, crush). Words from the same roots in include melde (to announce, report, notify), молния (lightning, zip(per)), and Mjǫllnir, Mjollnir (the hammer of the Norse god Thor) [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	smúr = ashes, dust, dross, rust
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	smúr, smur = dust, dross, rust
Irish (Gaeilge)	smúr [ˈsˠmˠuːɾˠ] = ash, dross, dust, rust, soot, grime smúrabhán = soot, lampblack smúrach = dusty, sooty, grimy smúránta = dull, hazy (weather) smúrlach = snout, dirty, grimy face smúrlóg = grimy-faced girl, mudlark
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	smúr [smuːr] = dross, junk, rubbish, particle, blemish, drizzle smúrach [smuːrəx] = dross, junk, rubbish, crumbs, drizzle smúrag [smuːrag] = tiny particle, tiny bit smúran [smuːran] = small particle, mote, an iota, tiny bit (of)
Manx (Gaelg)	smarage = cinder, ember, live coal

Etymology: uncertain, possibly related to smother and smoulder in English, and smeulen (to smoulder) in Dutch [source], which all ultimately come from Proto-Indo-European *(s)meld- (to burn, smoulder, smoke; tar, pitch) [source].

Captive Hostages

28th May 202513th September 2025 By Simon

Words for hostage, pledge and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with an * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*geistlos = hostage, bail
Gaulish	geistlus = hostage (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	gíall = a human pledge, hostage
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	gíall, gial, giall = a human pledge, hostage, jailer, act of yielding homage, obeying gíallacht, gíallnus = hostageship, captivity
Irish (Gaeilge)	giall [ɟiəl̪ˠ] = hostage, (human) pledge giallach = having or taking hostages giallacht = hostageship, bondage
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	giall [gʲiəl̪ˠ] = hostage, pledge giallach [gʲiəl̪ˠəx] = pertaining to or abounding in hostages / pledges
Manx (Gaelg)	gioal = pledge, pawn, stake, wager, bet, bond geulys, geuleydys = bondage
Proto-Brythonic	*guɨstl = hostage, bail
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gustil, gustel, guyst(e)l, gvystl, gwystyl = pledge, security, surety, guarantee, earnest guystlvy, gustelau, gusthaf = to give pledge or assurance, guarntee, pledge, pawn gwystlyryaeth, gwystloryaeth = suretyship, pledge, stake, pawn, mortgage
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gwystl [ɡwɨ̞sdl / ɡʊi̯sdl] = pledge, assurance, security, surety, guarantee, earnest, gage, pawn, hostage, wager, stake, bet, mortgage gwystl(i)ad = a pledging, a pawning gwystlo = to give pledge or assurance, guarntee, pledge, pawn gwystlchwarae = gambling gwystledig = pledge, bound, mortgaged gwystlor(i)aeth = suretyship, pledge, stake, pawn, mortgage gwystlwr, gwystlydd = mortgagor, pawnbroker
Old Cornish	guistel = hostage
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	guistel = hostage, pledge, surety
Cornish (Kernewek)	gostel = hostage, riot gostla = to pawn, wage
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	guistl = hostage
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	goestl = hostage, pledge goestlaff = to consecrate, dedicate, pledge, devote goestlet = pledged, dedicated, consecrated
Breton (Brezhoneg)	gouestl [ˈɡwestl] = hostage, pledge, guarantee, bail, surety gouestladur = commitment, offering gouestlaj = mortgage gouestlañ [ˈɡwestlã] = to bet, wager, guarantee, pledge, consecrate, dedicate, devote gouestlaoua = to bribe, buy, corrupt, grease the palm of gouestlaouañ = to bribe, corrupt gouestlet = pledged, dedicated, consecrated

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *gʰeydʰ- (to yearn for, to desire) [source]. Words from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Proto-Germanic *gīslaz (hostage), include gijzelen (to take hostage) in Dutch, Geisel (hostage) in German, gidsel (hostage) in Danish, gisslan (hostage) in Swedish, and kihlata (to betroth) in Finnish [source].

Words from the same PIE root include geisti (to desire, crave, covet, lust after) in Lithuanian, gaidīt (to wait, expect, anticipate) in Latvian, ждать (ždatʹ – to wait for, expect) in Russian, and geizen (to be miserly) in German [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	brága [ˈbraː.ɣɘ] = hostage, captive, prisoner
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	brága, brágha, brage [ˈbraːɣə] = captive, prisoner, hostage brágigdenas, braighdenus, braighdeanas = hostageship, captivity bráigtechas, braightechus = hostageship
Irish (Gaeilge)	brá [bˠɾˠɑː] = captive, hostage braighdeanach = captive, prisoner braighdeanas = captivity, bondage
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	bràigh [braːj] = captive, hostage bràighdeanas = bondage, captivity, slavery neach am bràighdeanas = captive, hostage

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *brāgants (neck, throat), from *brāg + *-ants (body part suffix), from Proto-Indo-European *gʷerh₃- (to swallow, devour, eat) [source]. The sense “captive” derives from the Middle Irish phrase gaibid ar brágait (to take captive: lit. “to take by the neck”) [source].

Words from the same PIE root include carnivore, devour, gargle, gorge, gurgle and voracious in English; gurgeln (to gargle, gurgle) in German; voractià (oracity, voraciousness) in Italian, and gerti (to drink, soak up, absorb) in Lithuanian [source].

The word for hostage in Manx is raane, which also means assurance, bail, bond, collateral, guarantee, pledge or surety [source]. Its etymology is not known [source].

Granular Grains

30th April 2025 By Simon

Words for grain, corn and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*grānom = grain
Old Irish (Goídelc)	grán [ɡraːn] = grain gráinne = grain, seed
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	grán, gran = level surface, grain gráinne, grainne = a grain, a seed
Irish (Gaeilge)	grán [ɡɾˠɑːnˠ / ɡɾˠaːnˠ] = grain, ball, shot, pellet gráinne [ˈɡɾˠɑːn̠ʲə] = grain, (hard) particle, pinch (small quantity) gránach = cereal gránaigh = to granulate, scratch, scrape, graze gránlach = grain, grit, shot, pellets, granulated, ground, matter gránú = granulation gránúll = pomegranate
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	gràn [graːn] = grain (cereal, wood), shot (of lead) gràinne [graː̪nʲə] = small grain, speck, small pellet, small quantity grànach [graːnəx] = grained, granular grànlach = corn, grain, cereal gràinneach [graːn̪ʲəx] = grained, granulous, granular, gritty, granulated gràinneanach [graːn̪ˠənəx] = pertaining to grains, grainy, granular
Manx (Gaelg)	grine = grain, corn, grapeshot, pellet, foresight grinaghey = grain grineagh = cereal, grained, granular grineeghey = to granulate, powder, granulation grinneegh = grained, grainy, granular, granulated, granulous, gritty
Proto-Brythonic	*grọn [ˈlɔːr] = grain
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	graun, graỽnn, grawn = grain grawnwin, grawn-wîn = grapes, wine made from the juice of grapes gronyn, gronnyne, gronun = a single grain or pip
Welsh (Cymraeg)	grawn [ɡrau̯n] = grain, corn, cereal, seed, grapes, berries, fruit, roe, spawn (of fish), shot, grape-shot, load (of a gun) grawnafal = pomegranate grawndy, grawnfa = barn, granary grawnddwyn = grain-bearing, graniferous, bearing grapes or berries grawnen = grape grawnfwyd = cereal, grain-food grawnffrwyth = grapefruit grawnwin = grapes, wine made from the juice of grapes grawnwydd = vines gronyn = a single grain or pip
Old Cornish	gronen = grain
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	gronen = grain
Cornish (Kernewek)	greun(en) [ɡɹøːn] = grain greunaval = pomegranate greunek, greunvos = cereal greunhe = to form grain greunji, greunva = granary, grange greunvosow = barley, cereals, corn, wheat greunya = to form grain in the ear
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	garan, greun(enn), grun = grain greunyaff = to go to seed, to grain, to seed, to spawn
Breton (Brezhoneg)	greun(enn) [ˈɡrœ̃ːn] = grain greunaval(enn) [grønɑ:val] = pommegranate greunek = grainy, granular greunenniñ = to granulate, to be granulated greuniañ = to go to seed, to grain, to seed, to spawn greunvaen [ˈɡʁœ̃nvɛn] = granite greunwin = raisins

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *ǵr̥h₂nóm (grain), possibly from *ǵr̥h₂-nós (matured, grown old) from *ǵerh₂- (to grow old, to mature). Words from the same roots include grurë (wheat) in Albanian, corn and grain in English, Korn (kernel, cereal, corn, grain) in German, grano (wheat, corn, grain, peppercorn, money, pin) in Italian, zirnis (pea) in Latvian, зерно (zerno – grain, cereal, seed) in Russian and Ukrainian [source].

Gráinne in Irish, gràinne in Scottish Gaelic, and maybe grine in Manx, come from Old Irish gráinne, from Old French grain (grain), from Latin grānum (grain, seed, small kernel), from Proto-Italic *grānom (grain), from Proto-Indo-European *ǵr̥h₂nóm [source].

Proto-Celtic	*arwar = grain
Old Irish (Goídelc)	arbar [ˈar.βər] = grain, corn
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	arbar, arbor = grain, corn
Irish (Gaeilge)	arbhar [ˈaɾˠ(ə)wəɾˠ / əˈɾˠuːɾˠ] = corn, cereals
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	arbhar [aravər] = corn
Manx (Gaelg)	arroo = corn, grain
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	erwein(t) = meadow-sweet
Welsh (Cymraeg)	erwain(t) = meadow-sweet, Queen of the meadows

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂érh₃-wr̥/*h₂r̥h₃-wén-s, from *h₂erh₃- (to plough) [source]. Words from the same roots include aratro (plough) in Albanian, arado (plough) in Spanish, aradr (plough) in Welsh, erv (ridge between furrows) in Breton, and arti (to plough) in Lithuanian [source].

Masters

18th April 202518th April 2025 By Simon

Words for master and related things in Celtic languages.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	maigister [ˈmaɣʲisʲtʲer] = master, teacher
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	maigister, maigistir, magistor, magister = teacher, master, lord, owner
Irish (Gaeilge)	máistir [ˈmˠɑːʃtʲəɾʲ / ˈmˠaiʃtʲəɾʲ] = master, person in control, teacher, skilled person máistreacht = mastering, mastery, office of master, mastership máistreás = mistress, wife máistrigh = to master, lord it over s.o. máistriúil = masterful, imperious, masterly
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	maighistir [majɪʃdʲɪrʲ] = master maighstir [maiʃdʲɪrʲ] = master maighstireachd [maiʃdʲɪrʲəxg] = office of a master, mastery Maighstir = Mr maighstir-lagha = magistrate maor-sìthe = constable maorsainneachd [mɯːr̪ˠsɪn̪ʲəxg] = mastership, prefecture maighstireil = masterly, lordly, domineering
Manx (Gaelg)	mains(h)tyr, mainshter = boss, master, skipper, taskmaster mainshtyragh = bossy, domineering, master
Middle Welsh (Kyrmraec)	meistyr = master, ruler, chief, lord# meistres, mastres = mistress, woman in authority, lady, madam meistrawl, meistrol = masterly, masterful meistroli = to master, overcome, defeat, conquer
Welsh (Cymraeg)	meistr, ma(e)str = master, ruler, chief, lord, landlord, employer, teacher, instructor, guide meistr(i)aeth = mastery, authority, supremacy meistres, ma(e)stres = mistress, woman in authority, lady, madam meistr(i)ol = masterly, masterful meistr(i)oli = to master, overcome, defeat, conquer
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	maister = master
Cornish (Kernewek)	mester = boss, master, mister, Mr mester cirk = ringmaster mestres = boss, mistress, Mrs, Ms Mestresik = Miss mestrieth, mestrionieth = master’s degree mestrynses = dominion
Middle Breton	maestr, mestr, mestre = master
Breton (Brezhoneg)	mestr [ˈmɛst(r)] = master, chief, champion kartemestr = quartermaster mestr-kêr = mayor mestr-skol = teacher, school master mestrañ = to dominate, to lead mestrerezh = preponderance, dominance mestrez = mistress, (female) boss

Etymology: from Latin magister (master, chief, head, superior, teacher, instructor), from Proto-Italic *magisteros (bigger, greater) from Proto-Indo-European *meh₂- (good, great), or *meǵh₂- (big, great). Words from the same roots include master, maestro (a master in some art, especially a composer or conductor), magistrate and mister in English, maestro (master, expert) in Italian, maître (master, leader, teacher) in French, and мастер (master – master, craftsman, expert, foreman, repairman) in Russian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	ollam [ˈol͈aβ̃] = a master in a particular trade or skill, a professor, the highest rank of fili, chief poet, doctor
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ollam, olloman = the highest grade of fili, an expert in any art or science, a professor, chief
Irish (Gaeilge)	ollamh [ˈɔl̪ˠəvˠ / ˈɔl̪ˠuː] = master poet, master, expert, learned man, professor ollúnacht = professorship ollúnta = professorial
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ollamh [ɔl̪ˠəv] = professor ollamhachd [ɔl̪ˠəvəxg] = professorship ollamhan [ɔl̪ˠəvan] = doctor (of medicine / philosophy), bard of the first order
Manx (Gaelg)	olloo = doctor, don, professor, pundit trong>ollooaght = professorship

Etymology: from Old Irish oll (great, vast and -am (occupational noun-forming suffix) [source].

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	múintid, múntith = teacher, instructor
Irish (Gaeilge)	múinteoir [mˠuːn̠ʲˈtʲoːɾʲ / ˈmˠuːn̠ʲtʲoːɾʲ] = teacher múinteoireacht = (act of) teaching

Etymology: from Old Irish múnid (to teach, instruct, learn, show, point out), possibly from Latin moneō (to warn, advise, remind) [source], from Proto-Italic *moneō (to remind, warn), from *monejō, from Proto-Indo-European *moné-ye-ti, from the root *men- (to think). Words from the same roots include monitor in English, muñir (to arrange) in Spanish, and monieren (to criticize, complain about) in German [source].

Other words for teacher can be found on these post Scholarly Pupils and Fathers

Celtiadur

Exploring connections between Celtic languages

Category: Russian (Русский)

Barley

Binding Fastenings

A Stack of Heaps

Shearing Fleeces

Shields

What?

Ashen Embers

Captive Hostages

Granular Grains

Masters