With and Without

23rd September 202323rd September 2023 By Simon

Words for with, without, by and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

The emphatic forms of this word combined with personal pronouns are shown after the /.

Proto-Celtic	*letos = side
Old Irish (Goídelc)	la [la] = with, beside, by, belonging to, among; in the language of, in the opinion of lem(m), lim(m), leim, lium(m) / lemsa, li(u)msa = with me lat(t) / latso, latsu = with you (sg) leiss, les(s), lais(s), letha / le(i)som, laisem = with him l(a)ee, lǽ / lési = with her li(u)nn, le(i)nn, linn(a)i = with us lib / libsi = with you (pl) leu, léu leo, lethu / leusom, leosom = with them lam = with my lat = with your (sg) lia = with his/hers/its/their liar = with our lassa = with, which
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	la = beside, by, touching, along with, in the same direction as, following to course of, in the company of lem(m), lim(m), lium = with me lat(t), let = with you (sg) leiss, less, les = with him lee, laee, lea = with her lenn, leinn, linn = with us lib = with you (pl) leu, leo = with them
Irish (Gaeilge)	le [lʲɛ] = with, to, for, by, against, in proximity to, in contact with, beside, towards, facing, open to, along the face of, in company with, at, against liom / liomsa = with me leat / leatsa = with you (sg) leis / leis-sean = with him léi / léise = with her linn / linne = with us libh / libhse = with you (pl) leo / leosan = with them le mo, lem = with my le do, led = with your (sg) lena = with his/hers/its lenár = with our lena = with their le haghaidh = for, near, in store for
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	le [le] = with, by, using, in possession of, in favour of, downhill, downstream, lee(ward), port(side) leam / leamsa = with me leat / leatsa = with you (sg) leis / leissan = with him leatha / leathase = with her leinn / leinne = with us leibh / libhse = with you (pl/frm) leotha / leothasan = with them
Manx (Gaelg)	lesh [lɛʃ] = for, with, toward lhiam / lhiams = with me lhiat / lhiats = with you (sg) lesh / leshsyn = with him lhee / lheeish = with her lhien / lhienyn = with us lhiu / lhiuish = with you (pl) lhieu / lhieusyn = with them

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *letos (side), which is possibly related to *ɸletos (side) [source].

Words for half, side, wide, broad and related things in Celtic languages possibly come from the same roots [more details].

Proto-Celtic	writu = against writbero = to come against, return writkomfarsko- = to ask writtongo = to renounce
Old Irish (Goídelc)	fri [fʲrʲi] = towards, against, along, beside, close to, on the point of frimm, frium(m) / fri(u)msa = against me frit(t), friut(t) / fritso, fritsu = against you (sg) fris(s) / frissom, frissium = against him frie = against her frinn / finn(a)i = against us frib / fribsi = against you (pl) friu / friusom = against them
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	fri = towards, facing, turned to, against, alongside, by, next to, at, in contact with frim(m), frium / fri(u)msa = against me frit(t), friutt / fritsu = against you (sg) fris(s) / frissom = against him frie, friae / frise = against her fri(u)nn, frind / finn(a)i = against us frib, frithib / fribsi = against you (pl) friu / friusom = against them
Irish (Gaeilge)	re [rˠeː] = with, to, for, by, against (archaic, le is used instead) fara [ˈfˠaɾˠə] = along, with, beside, in addition to (rare, used in Munster) frae, fré [fˠɾˠeː] = with, along with (used in Connacht)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ri [rʲi] = against, busy with, engaged in, to, than ruim/ ruimsa = against me ruit / riutsa = against you (sg) ris / ris-san = against him rithe / rithese = against her rinn / rinne = against us ribh / ribhse = against you (pl) riutha / riuthasan = against them
Manx (Gaelg)	rish [rɪʃ] = along, beside, by, during, for rhym / rhyms = to me rhyt / rhyts = to you (sg) rish / rishyn = to him r’ee / r’eeish = to her rooin / rooinyn = to us riu / riuish = to you (pl) roo / roosyn = to them
Old Welsh	gurth = by, at, near
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	wrth, vrth, Ỽrth = by, at, near
Welsh (Cymraeg)	(g)wrth [(g)ʊrθ / (g)ʊθ] = by, at, near, close to, opposite, facing, in contact with, on, against, also, with, beside, because of, as a result of, about, concerning wrth angen = according to need, as necessary wrth angor = at anchor wrth fron = near, close to, at the point of, almost wrth law, wrth y llaw = nearby, at hand, by hand wrth fynd heibio = in passing (of comment) wrth ben = on top of, above, over
Old Cornish	gurth = by
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	(w)orth = at, by, to, for, with (w)orthyf of/from/to/against me (w)orthys = of/from/to/against thee (w)orto = by/upon him or it (w)orty = by/upon her or it (w)orthyn = of/from/to/against us (w)ortheuch = of/from/to you orte, worté = by/upon them
Cornish (Kernewek)	orth = against, at orth ow brys = in my opinion orth bodh ow brys = intentionally orth niver = in number
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	oz, ouz, ouc’h, oud = against, to, of, opposite
Breton (Brezhoneg)	ouzh [us] = towards, to, against ouzh beg = below, at the bottom (of) diouzh [ˈdiːus/ˈdjuːs] = of, according to diouzh re = in case of need, if necessary diouzhtu [djusˈtyː] = immediately

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *wert- (to turn) [source].

Conjugated forms in Welsh, Cornish and Breton

English words from the same PIE root include divert, invert, pervert, verse, verus, vortex and worth [source].

Proto-Celtic	kanta = together with kantyos = assembly, gathering
Gaulish	kantyos = assembly, gathering cantio* = assembly, gathering
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cét- = with céite = assembly, hill, mound
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cét- = with céite = hill, mound, open space, racecourse, meeting-place, assembly, square, market-place
Old Welsh	cant = by, at, near
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	can, cann, gen, gant, gan = with, together with genhyf = with me genhyt = with thee gant(h)aw = with him or it gent(h)i = with her or it genhym, genhyn, gennyn = with us genhwch, gennwch = with you gantu(d), gantunt, ganthud = with them gid, y gyd, kyd, gyt = with, together with
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gan [ɡan] = with, together with, alongside, beside, by (means of), through, because of, on account of, from , of gyda = with, together with, in addition to, in the company of, close by, next to, alongside, besides, for
Old Cornish	cant, cans = with, by
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	gan, gans = with, by genef, gynef = with me genes, gynes = with thee ganso = with him or it gynsy = with her or it genen, gynen = with us geneuch = with you gansé = with them
Cornish (Kernewek)	gans = by, with gans ganow = by word of mouth gans golow, gans tan = alight, lit gans henna = thereby gans oll ow holon vy = sincerely yours gans pub bolonjedh da = with all good wishes
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	gant = with, on the occasion of, so much
Breton (Brezhoneg)	gant [ˈɡãnt] = with, because of digant = with, of

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *ḱóm (with) [source].

Conjugated forms in Welsh, Cornish and Breton

Proto-Celtic	*sekʷo- = besides, without
Old Irish (Goídelc)	sech [sʲex] = past, beyond, different from, more than sechum = different from me sechut = different from you (sg) sech(a)e, sechæ = different from him secce = different from her sechund = different from us seccu = different from them
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	sech = past, beyond, different from, more than, sechum, seacham , seocham = different from me sechut, seachad, seochad = different from you (sg) (se)chae, secha, sechai = different from him seochu, seacha = different from him secci, seicce, seice = different from her sechund, sechoind, seachoinn = different from us sechaib = different from you (pl) seccu, seocu, seoca = different from them
Irish (Gaeilge)	seach [ʃax] = by, past, beyond, other than, more than
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	seach [ʃɛx] = compared with/to, in preference to, past, by, rather than seach-rathad = bypass, relief road, byway seach-thìm = overtime
Manx (Gaelg)	shagh [ʃax] = past shaghey = bye, bygone, past, delay, prolong, neglected shiaghey = past shagh-votal = proxy vote shagh-chlou = offprint shagh-teiyder = proxy
Proto-Brythonic	*heb = besides, without
Old Welsh	hep = without
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	heb, hep = without, past hebof, hebofy = without me hebot = without thee hebddaw = without him or it hebddi, hebdi, hebti = without her or it hebom, heibom = without us heboch = without you hebddudd = without them heb law, hebillaw, heb-law = besides, not counting eb vn ail = without peer, incomparable, unrivalled heb annot = without delay, immediately
Welsh (Cymraeg)	heb [hɛb/heːb] = without, minus, free from, void of, lacking, in the absence of, past, besides, in addition to, not including, excluding, apart from, heblaw = besides, not counting, over and above, in addition to, except, but, without, past heb ei ail, heb (un) ail = without peer, incomparable, unrivalled heb annod = without delay, immediately
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	heb, hep = without, destitute, void of hebford = without a road
Cornish (Kernewek)	heb = witout heb ahwer = readily heb bri = irrelevant heb danjer = safely heb difuna = dormant heb diwedh = endlessly, continuously, eternal
Old Breton	ep = without
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	hep, hemp, eb = without hep quen, ep quen, hemb kin, epken = only hep muy, hep-mui = without further …, only hep muy quen, hep mui quen = only
Breton (Brezhoneg)	hep [hep] = without hepken = only, exclusiveness hepmuiken = without further …

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *sekʷ- (to follow) or from *sek- (to cut) [source].

Conjugated forms in Welsh, Cornish and Breton

English words from the same PIE root include sect, sign, signal, social, sue, suit, suite [source].

Proto-Celtic	*kina = on this side of
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cen [kʲen] = except, without, unbeknownst to, unknown to cene, cenae [ˈkʲene] = besides, in any case, already olchene, olchenae [olˈxʲene] = besides, the other(s), the rest
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cen, cin, can, gen, gin, gan = on this side of, apart from, besides, except, without, -less
Irish (Gaeilge)	gan [ɡən̪ˠ/ɡan̪ˠ] = without, not gan amhras = undoubtedly gan fáth gan ábhar = for no reason whatever gan fhios = unknown, secretly gan on = faultless, unblemished
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	gun [ɡən̪ˠ] = without, not gun chiall = without sense, senseless, insane gun fhiù = worthless, trashy, trivial gun iarraidh = unwanted, unbidden, unsought gun mhaille = forthwith gun sgot = clueless
Manx (Gaelg)	gyn = ex, un-, devoid, without gyn baare = pointless gyn bun = baseless, bogus, unfounded gyn currym = carefree, unencumbered gyn ennym = anonymous, nameless, unnamed gyn feill = vegetarian
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	quen, quin, gen, ken = no more, other
Breton (Brezhoneg)	ken [ˈkɛnː] = other, only, no more

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *ḱe (this, here) [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Down Under

14th September 202314th September 2023 By Simon

Words for down, below, under and related things in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic	*ɸīssu = under
Old Irish (Goídelc)	ís = below sís = down, downwards, northwards anís = below, from below tís = below
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ís = below, under sís, sis = down, downwards, northwards, below, onwards, throughout, onwards sísana, siosina, sisana = here below, below anís, = (from) below, beneath tís = below, in the north
Irish (Gaeilge)	síos [ʃiːsˠ] = down (away from the speaker), to lower place or station, hanging down, drooping, trailing, to the north, to a lesser centre or remote district, following síos suas = upside down, topsyturvy aníos = up (from below), from the north thíos = down, in a lower place, in the north, below, farther on in a book, written down, entered (in a ledger, etc), on the fire thíosluaite = undermentioned thíos-sínithe = undersigned
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sìos [ʃiəs] = down (away from the speaker), downwards, below shìos [hiəs] = down, below a-nìos [əˈn̪ʲiəs] = up, upwards (towards from the speaker) a-sìos [əˈʃiəs] = down, downwards sìos ‘nad inntinn = depressed a’ dol sìos = going down, experiencing a downturn, charging (in battle) cuir sìos = to put/lay/set down is mar sin sìos = and so on
Manx (Gaelg)	sheese = below, down, downward(s) brishey sheese = to analyse, analysis, break down, rend sheese lesh = down the hatch, down with soie sheese = to settle, sit down heese = beneath, down, downhill, hereafter, lower end, under, knock-down (prices) neese = from below up, upwards
Old Welsh	is = under, underneath, beneath, below, lower than
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	is, iss = under, underneath, beneath, below, lower than iss-hau, isheir = to sink, sink down or lower issot, isod = under, underneath, below, beneath
Welsh (Cymraeg)	is = under, underneath, beneath, below, lower than; before; lower, inferior, poorer isâf, isáu = to come/go lower, to reduce in rank, lower the pride of, debase, degrade, humble, humiliate isafaf, isafu = to minimize, reduce, lower isafiad = (one’s) inferior isod = under, underneath, below, beneath, on earth, lower down, later, further
Middle Cornish (CerneweC)	isa = lowest isot = downwards
Cornish (Kernewek)	a-is = below, lower
Old Breton	isel = low
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	is = lower, below
Breton (Brezhoneg)	is = lower, below isdouarel = underground

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European pedsú, from *pṓds (foot), from *ped- (to walk, step) [source]. Words from the same roots include íseal (low) in Irish, ìosal (low, humble) in Scottish Gaelic, isel (low) in Welsh and related words for low in other Celtic languages, Fuß (foot) in German and pie (foot) in Spanish [more details].

Proto-Celtic	uɸo/ufo- = under
Old Irish (Goídelc)	fo = beneath, through, throughout, towards, under fo bésad = after the manner of, like fo bíthin = because (of) fo chétóir = at once, immediately
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	fo, fa, fá = under, underneath, into, through, about, around
Irish (Gaeilge)	faoi [fˠiː] = beneath, below, bearing, supporting, about, round, against faoi cheann = by, at, the end of faoi adhall = in heat faoi bhaile = at home, around faoi bhun = beneath
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	fo [fɔ] = under, underneath, below, beneath, subordinate fo-dhearg = infrared fo-inntinn = subconscious fo-ros = undergrowth fo chleòca = under cover, in secret
Manx (Gaelg)	fo = below, beneath, under, sunken, dependent, underlaying, subsidiary, junior, assistant fo aggle = aghast, alarmed, awestricken fo arrey = under surveillance fo chiuney = beclamed fo druaight = charmed fo-heer-vooar = subcontinent
Old Welsh	guo, gu =under, rather, somewhat
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gwo, gwa, go = under, rather, somewhat goaruoel = rather bald, baldish
Welsh (Cymraeg)	go = under, rather, somewhat, slightly, partly, small, exceeding go agos = near, almost go dde = right, dexterous go lew = pretty fair, middling go is = beneath goarfoel = rather bald, baldish
Middle Cornish (CerneweC)	go = rather
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	gou, gu, go, fo, uo = under
Breton (Brezhoneg)	gwa-, gou- = under, sub-

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *upo (under, below). Words for high in Celtic languages come from the same root, as does sub(marine) in English, sumo (highest, greatest) in Spanish and summo (hightest, greatest, great) [source].

Proto-Celtic	*tanā = (point in) time
Old Irish (Goídelc)	tan = when, time
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	tan, tain = time, while, point of time, when, whenever, until, before
Irish (Gaeilge)	tan [tan] = time, occasion, once upon a time, once (an) tan = at the time that, when, whenever, since
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	tàn [taːn] =time, season an tàn = when, at the time
Proto-Brythonic	*tan =under
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	dan, tan = under, below, beneath
Welsh (Cymraeg)	tan [tan] = until, under, while dan = under, below, beneath, underneath, on the inside, less than, until, while, because, since o dan = under tan lw = under oath dan yr awyr, tan awyr = under the sky, in the open air dan ddaear = underground dan din = sneaky, deceitful, stealthy, secret, illicit dan y don = under water dan draed = underfoot, in the way
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	tan = under, beneath, below (yn) dan = under, beneath danva = a hiding place, concealment
Cornish (Kernewek)	yn-dann = below, beneath, under, underneath yn-dann alhwedh = under lockdown yn-dann dava = in touch yn-dann dhor = underground yn-dann dhowr = underwater yn-dann gel = in secret, secretly yn-dann hatt = confidential yn-dann with = care of (c/o)
Old Breton	tan, dan = under
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dan = bottom, back, under, underneath
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dan = basement, subsoil dindan = under, on, sub- dindan-douar = underground, secret dindan-vor = underwater

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *tn̥néh₂ (a stretch), from *ten- (to stretch). Words from the same root include contain, tenant, tone and tune in English [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Take Note!

7th September 2023 By Simon

Words for note, mark and related things in Celtic languages.

note, mark, sign

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	not = contraction, mark, sign
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	not, nod = mark, sign, sign of contraction in writing, note, bear in mind nodmar = significant
Irish (Gaeilge)	nod [n̪ˠɔd̪ˠ/n̪ˠʌd̪ˠ] = scribal contraction, abbreviation, hint nodaire = professional scribe nodaireacht = notation, profession of scribe nóta = (musical) note, brief record, annotation, short letter nótáil = to note (down) nótáilte = notable nótaire = notary
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	nòd(h) = note nòta = (written) note nòtachadh = annotation nòtaire = notary dubh-not = crotchet, quarter note geal-not = minim, half note cruinn-not = semibreve, whole note bun-nòta = footnote nòta-deiridh = endnote
Manx (Gaelg)	notey = note noatey = banknote
Proto-Brythonic	*nod = mark, brand
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	nod, not, nôd = target, goal, aim, etc nottwy, nodi, notto = to mark, brand, seal, note, record nodidog = excellent, splendid, notable
Welsh (Cymraeg)	nod [noːd] = target, goal, aim, fame, renown, notoriety, mark sign, symbol, note, banknote, verse (in Bible) nodach = short notes, jottings, odds and ends, trifles nodadwy = noteworthy, notable, remarkable nod(i)af, nodi(o) = to mark, brand, seal, note, record nod(i)edig = noted, marked, appointed, set, specified nodidog = excellent, splendid, notable nodyn [ˈnɔdɨ̞n/ˈnoːdɪn] = target, aim, mark, token, note atalnod = punctuation mark, comma collnod = apostrophe ’ cysylltnod = hyphen – dyfynnod = ‘quotation mark’ ebychnod = exclamation mark!, sign of aspiration (h) hirnod = cîrcûmflêx hynod = remarkable, notable
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	nôd, nos = mark, token notye = to note, observe, denote
Cornish (Kernewek)	nos = mark, token nos devyn = quotation mark nos -junya = hyphen nosedhek = notable nosya = to notate nosyans = notation noten = note notenna = to notate (music) notennans = notation notennyans = annotation noter, notores = notary, solicitor notya = to note notyans = memo notyes, notys = notable
Old Breton	not = note
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	not = note, mention notabl, notapl = notable notadur = notation, (religious) censure
Breton (Brezhoneg)	notenn = note not = note notañ, notiñ = to note notapl = notable notadur = notation

Etymology: from Latin nota (mark, sign, note), which is of unknown origin. Words from the same Latin root include note in English, note (note, mark, grade, bill) in French, Note (note, grade, mark) in German, and nota (note, memo, mark) in Spanish [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Boats and Ships

31st August 202331st August 2023 By Simon

Words for boat, ship and related vessels in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*longā- = boat, vessel
Old Irish (Goídelc)	long [l͈oŋɡ] = boat, ship longfort = camp, encampment, stronghold
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	long, longa = boat, ship, vessel, long-ship, galley; vessel, container; house; bed longphort, lonngport = camp, encampment, temporary stronghold, mansion, princely dwelling; stronghold, fortress
Irish (Gaeilge)	long [l̪ˠɔŋ] = ship, vessel, container, house longbhá = shipwreck longbhac = embargo (on ships), naval blockade longbhoth = (navel) dock longbhriste = shipwrecked longcheárta, longchlós = shipyard longfort = camp, stronghold, fortified residence longlann = dockyard longmhar = abounding in ships longtheach = boat-house longthógáil = shipbuilding
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	long [l̪ˠɔuŋg] = ship longas = shipping, shipment longart = seaport long-adhair = airship long-bhriste = shipwreck long-chasgadh = embargo long-fhada = galley (ship) long-fhànais = spaceship long-lann = dockyard long-phort = seaport long-thogail = shipbuilding
Manx (Gaelg)	lhong [loŋ] = ship, vessel lhong aer = airship lhong-chaardee = boatyard, shipyard lhong chrowal = hovercraft lhong liauyr = longship lhong-phurt = basin, seaport lhong spoar = spaceship lhong spooillee = pirate ship lhuingys = fleet, shipping
Proto-Brythonic	*llong = ship, vessel
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	loggou, log, llogeu, llong = ship, boat llongi = to embark, ship llongeidiev, llongaid = shipload, shipful, shipment, cargo llog porth, llogborth, llong-borth = seaport, haven, harbour long-dorr = shipwreck longhawl, llonghavl. llongawl = nautical, maritime, naval llongỼyr, llongwr = seaman, sailor, mariner
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llong [ɬɔŋ] = ship, boat; the Great Bear (Ursa Major) llongaf, llongi = to embark, ship llongaid = shipload, shipful, shipment, cargo llongborth = seaport, harbour, dock, quay llongdor = shipwreck llongol = nautical, maritime, naval llongwr = seaman, sailor, mariner llong awyr = airship, aeroplane llong y diffeithwch, llong dir = ship of the desert, camel llong ofod = spaceship, spacecraft llong hofran = hovercraft llong danfor(ol) = submarine
Old Breton	locou = ship, boat

Etymology: possibly from the Latin (navis) longa ([long] boat), or from an unknown source [Source].

Proto-Celtic	*nāwā- = boat
Old Irish (Goídelc)	nau, nó = boat
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	nó, noe = boat (generally a small one, propelled by oars)
Irish (Gaeilge)	nae [n̪ˠeː] = boat
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	noe = large vase, bowl
Welsh (Cymraeg)	noe = (wooden) vessel used in making butter, kneading dough, etc. shallow dish, bowl, pan, basin, laver, wooden trough noeaid = dishful
Cornish (Kernewek)	new = sink, trough, washbasin new doos = trough new-droghya = sheep dip
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	néau, néff, neo, nev = trough, bucket néay-doas, neo-doaz, nev-doaz = kneading-trough
Breton (Brezhoneg)	nev = trough, bucket

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *néh₂us (boat), from *(s)neh₂- (to swim) [Source]. Words from the same roots include navy, navigate, andnautical in English [Source].

Old Irish (Goídelic)	bát = boat
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	bát, bád = boat
Irish (Gaeilge)	bád [bˠɑːd̪ˠ/bˠaːd̪ˠ] = boat bádóireacht = (act of) boating bád iascaigh = fishing boat bád seoil = sailing boat bád tarrthála = lifeboat
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	bàta [baːhdə] = boat, craft bàtaireachd = boating bàta-aigeil = submarine bàta-asieig = ferry boat bàta-falbhain = hovercraft bàta-iasgaich = fishing boat bàta-sàbhalaidh = lifeboat bàta-siùil = sailing boat
Manx (Gaelg)	baatey [ˈbɛːðə] = boat, even keel baateyrys = boating baatey assaig = ferry boat baatey bieauid = speedboat baatey eeastee = fishing boat baatey etlagh = seaplane baatey sauaillagh = lifeboat baatey
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	bat, bad = boat badwr = boatman, waterman, ferryman
Welsh (Cymraeg)	bad = boat, barge, (small) ship badaid = boatful badlong = ketch, pinnace badwr = boatman, waterman, ferryman bad acbub = lifeboat bad pysgota = fishing boat

Etymology: from Old English bāt (boat) or from Old Norse bátr (boat), both of which come from Proto-Germanic *baitaz (boat, ship), from Proto-Indo-European *bʰeyd- (to break, split) [Source].

The English word boat comes from the same roots, as do words for boat in many other languages [Source].

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	scaf, scaffu, scafa = ship
Irish (Gaeilge)	scafa [sˠkɑfˠə] = ship
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sgoth [sgɔh] = skiff sgothag = little skiff, small yacht, cutter sgiof [sgʲif] = skiff (boat) sgib [sgʲib] = small ship (archaic)
Manx (Gaelg)	skiff = skiff
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	esgraff, yscraff, ysgraff = boat, barge, ferry
Welsh (Cymraeg)	ysgraff, sgraff = boat, barge, skiff, ferry, ship, raft ysgraffbont = pontoon ysgraffwr, ysgraffydd = ferryman, boatman, bargee
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	scath = boat scath hîr = long boat
Cornish (Kernewek)	skath = boat skathik = dinghy skath hir = barge skath kloos = raft skath tan = motor-boat skath sawya = lifeboat skath-wolya = sailing boat
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	scaph, scaff, sqaff, skaf = skiff skavat, skafad = contents of a skiff
Breton (Brezhoneg)	skaf = skiff, landing net

Etymology: possibly from Latin scapha (a light boat, skiff), from Ancient Greek σκάφη (skáphē – light boat, skiff), from σκᾰ́πτω (skáptō – to dig, delve); or from Old Norse skúta (small craft, cutter) [Source].

Proto-Celtic	*lestrom = vessel, pot
Old Irish (Goídelic)	lestar = vessel, container, beehive
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lestar = vessel, container, beehive, ship, boat lestarach = frequented by ships
Irish (Gaeilge)	leastar [ˈl̠ʲasˠt̪ˠəɾˠ] = vessel, container (for liquids), cask, firkin, (wash) tub, punt (boat), tub; squat, dumpy person
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	leastar = small boat, cup, vessel, furniture of a house
Proto-Brythonic	*llestr = vessel, container
Old Welsh	lestir = vessel, container
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llestri, llestyr = vessel, container llestreit, llestraid, llestred = vesselful, caskful, tubful, bushel llestryn, llestrun = small vessel, small barrel, boat
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llestr [ɬɛstr/ˈɬɛstɛr] = vessel, bushel, ship, boat, beehive, womb, uterus llestraid = vesselful, caskful, tubful, bushel llestrwr = maker of vessels, potter llestryn = small vessel, small barrel, boat, human body
Old Cornish	lester = vessel, container
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	lester = vessel, ship golowlester = a light-vessel, a lamp
Cornish (Kernewek)	lester = dish, ship, utensil vessel lester eth = steam boat lester-bargesi = hovercraft lester=gwari = yacht lester-sedhi = submarine annedh lester = houseboat lestrier = (kitchen) dresser lestriva = dockyard lestryn = container
Old Breton	lestr = ship, vessel, container
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	lestr = ship, vessel, container lestr-dre-dan = steamship lestr-kroazer, lestr-reder = cruiser
Breton (Brezhoneg)	lestr [ˈlɛstʁ] = vessel, container, ship lestr-spluj[lɛs.ˈplyːʃ] = submarine aerlestr [ˈɛʁlestʁ] = aircraft lestrañ [ˈlɛstrã] = to board, load (a vehicle) dilestrañ [diˈlɛsːtrã] = to disemark

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *pleḱ- (to fold, weave). The Goidelic words were possibly borrowed from Proto-Brythonic [Source].

Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cwch, cŵch = boat, beehive
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cwch [kʊχ] = boat, beehive
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	coc = boat
Cornish (Kernewek)	kok = fishing boat
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	couc’h = cover of a beehive, hull (of a boat)
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kouc’h = cover of a beehive, hull (of a boat) kouc’hañ = to cover (a beehive)

Etymology: possibly cognate with the English word cog (a clinker-built, flat-bottomed, square-rigged mediaeval ship of burden, or war with a round, bulky hull and a single mast; a small fishing boat), which comes from Middle Dutch cogghe (clinker-built, flat-bottomed sailing cargo ship of the Middle Ages), from Proto-Germanic *kuggō, from PIE *gugā (hump, ball) [Source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Fearful dread

25th August 2023 By Simon

Words for fear, dread and related words in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic	oβnus/obnu- = fear *exsoβnos = fearless
Gaulish	*exsoβnos = fearless
Old Irish (Goídelc)	omun [ˈo(ː)ṽun] = fear, dread, afraid airomun = great fear
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ómun, omun, ómain, óman, úama(i)n, úamun = fear, afraid, apprehensive, fearful, terrible omnach = afraid, easily frightened, timid, fearful, fear-inspiring esamain, essamain = fearless, bold, daring
Irish (Gaeilge)	uamhan = fear, awe, dread, terror uamhnach = dreadful, terrifying, fearful, timorous uamhnacht = dreadfulness, terror, fearfulness, timorousness uamhnaigh = to frighten, terrify, become afraid, fear, dread
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	uabhann [uəvən̪ˠ] = dread, terror, horror uabhannach [uəvən̪ˠəx] = terrible, horrible, astounding, shocking
Manx (Gaelg)	owan = dread, fright owanagh = fearful, frightening, frightful
Proto-Brythonic	oβn [oβn] = fear exoβn [ɛxˈoβn] = fearless, bold *exoβneð = fearlessness, boldness, confidence
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ovn, ofuyn, ofyn, ofn = fear, terror, dread, fright, anxiety ofnadwy = terrible, fearful, frightful ovynna, ofni, ofnaf = to fear ofnedic, ofnedig, ovanedig = feared, terrible, dreadful, awful ovnawc, ofnauc, ofynawc = fearful, afraid, timorous, timid, apprehensive ofnus = fearful, afraid, timerous, timid ehon, ehovyn, ehofyn = fearless
Welsh (Cymraeg)	ofn [ɔvn/ˈoːvɔn] = fear, terror, dread, fright, anxiety ofnad = (a state/cause of) fear or anxiety ofnadwy = terrible, fearful, frightful, dreadul, formidable, awesome ofnaf, ofni = to fear, be afraid, hold in awem respect, revere; to frighton, terrify, scare ofnedig = feared, terrible, dreadful, awful ofnog = fearful, afraid, timorous, timid, apprehensive ofnus = fearful, afraid, timerous, timid eofn = fearless, dauntless, brave, courageous
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	own = fear, dread owna = to fear, dread, be afraid ownec, ownek = a timid person, a fearful fellow, a coward
Cornish (Kernewek)	own = alarm, fear, fright, scare ownek = afraid, alarmed, cowardly, fearful, scared, terrified, timid ownek, owenoges = coward ownekhe = to intimidate ownekheans = intimidation ownus = apprehensive
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	aoun, oun, eunë = fear aounic, aounich, aonic = timid aounus, eunus = fearful
Breton (Brezhoneg)	aon [ɔ̃n] = fear aonik = timid aonikaat = to make or become timid aoniñ = frightened, scared aonus = fearful dizaon = fearless dizaoniñ = to stave off fear rouzaon =fright

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *h₂enǵʰ- (to constrict, tighten). [source].

Proto-Celtic	ɸowtus, awtos, *owtos = horror, fear
Old Irish (Goídelc)	úath [ˈo(ː)ṽun] = fear, horror, terror
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	úath, uath = fear, horror, terror, spectre, phantom, terrible, horrible úathach, uathach, uathbas = horrible, dreadful úathmar, uathmar = dreadful, terrifying, horrible, awful airúath, erúath = dreadfulness, terribleness. terror, dread fúath, fuath = hatred, abhorrence fúathmar, fuathmhar = hateful, odious
Irish (Gaeilge)	uath [uə(h)] = horrible thing, horror (literary) uafás = horror, terror, astonishment, vast number or amount uafásach = horrible, terrible, vast, astonishing fuath [fˠuə/fˠɪə] = hate, hatred fuafar = hateful, hideous, odious fuathaigh = to hate, abandon through dislike fuathaitheoir = hater fuathú = to hate, abhorrence, dislike, distaste
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	uabhas [uəh] = dread, terror uabhasach [uəvəsəx] = horrible, terrible, awful, dire, dreadful, destructive; very, terribly uabhasaich [uəvəsɪç] = horrity, appal uabhasachd [uəvəsəxg] = terribleness, awfulness, dreadfulness, horribleness, abominableness fuath [fuə] = hatred, aversion, antipathy, spectre, the fairies fuathach [fuəhəx] = abhorrent, detestable, loathsome fuathasach = dreadful, horrible, wonderful
Manx (Gaelg)	feoh = abhorrence, antipathy, aversion, disgust, hatred, loathing, phobia feohdagh = abhorrent, abominable, execrable, filthy, hateful, nauseous feohdoil = abhorrent, disgusting, hateful, horrible, horrid, invidious, loathsome
Proto-Brythonic	ʉθ, ọθ = horror
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	vthir, uthyr, vthyr = fearful, dreadful, awful, terrible uthraf, uthro = to astonish, amaze uthraidd, vthraidd = wonderful, wondrous, astonishing uthred, uthret = horror vthrawg = fearful, dreadful uthrol, vthrawl, uthrawl = frightful, dreadful, astonishing
Welsh (Cymraeg)	uthr = fearful, terrible, tremendous, mighty, overbearing, cruel, wonderful, wondrous, astonishing, excellent uthraf, uthro = to astonish, amaze, be astonished, terrify uthraidd = wonderful, wondrous, astonishing, excellent, frightful, dreadful uthrog = fearful, dreadful uthrol = frightful, dreadful, astonishing
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	euth = fright, horror uth = horror, fright, terror, awfulness uthec, uthyc = horible, frightful, terrible, awful uthecter, utheker = horror, frightfulness
Cornish (Kernewek)	euth = horror, panic, terror euthega = to terrify euthekter = terror euthvil = monster euthyk = abominable, awful, frightful, ghastly, horrible
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	euz, eah, êuz, heuz = disgust, horror, aversion, fear euzic, euzyc = horrible, hideous
Breton (Brezhoneg)	euzh = fright euzhadenn, euzhden = monster (person) euzhvil = monster (animal) euzhwrac’h = chimera

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *pew-. Possibly related to *oβnus (fear) [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	ecla = dread, fear ecal = cautious, fearful, timid
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ecla [ˈeɡlə] = fear, dread ecal, egal = fearful, timorous eclach = fearful, causing or inspiring fear, dreaded ainecla, airecla = great fear, terror
Irish (Gaeilge)	eagla [ˈaɡəl̪ˠə/ˈaɡlˠə] = fear eagal = fearful, timorous (person) eagalach =fearful, afraid, apprehensive, timid eagalaí = fearfulness eagalaigh = to become afraid, be afraid of, fear, frighten
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	eagal [egəl̪ˠ] = fear, fright, timidity eagalach [egəl̪ˠəx] = fearful, timid, frightful, timorous, frightening, alarming eagalach feagalach = hairy scary eagalta [egəl̪ˠdə] = fearful eagalachd [egəl̪ˠəxg] = terribleness, dreadfulness eagalan = little coward
Manx (Gaelg)	aggle = fear agglagh = fearful, afraid agglee = to become afraid, be afraid, fear, appall

Etymology: from Old Irish ess- (ex-, out, dis-), from Proto-Celtic *exs (out), from Proto-Indo-European *h₁eǵʰs (out); and Old Irish gal (ardour, fury, valour), from Proto-Celtic *galā (might, ability), from *galnati (to be able), from Proto-Indo-European *gelH- (to be able, can) [source].

Words meaning to be able to in Brythonic languages, such as gallu in Welsh, come from the same roots [more details], as does the Irish word gal (ardour, valour, fury, vapour, steam) [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Ceilidh Companions

17th August 2023 By Simon

Words for companion, ceilidh and related things in Celtic languages.

Ceilidh at Sabhal Mòr Ostaig in the Isle of Skye / Cèilidh aig Sabhal Mòr Ostaig san Eilean Sgitheanach

Proto-Celtic	*kēlyos = companion, servant
Primitive Irish	ᚉᚓᚂᚔ (celi) = follower, devotee (genitive)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	céile [ˈkʲeːlʲe] = client, companion, husband, liege, servant, spouse, subject, vassal céilide [ˈkʲeːlʲiðʲe] = visit, visiting coicéile = companion, comrade, friend, friendship
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	céile, ceile, céli = servant, bondsman, vassal, subject, fellow, companion, husband céileachas = adultery céilide = visit, act of visiting coicéile, cocéle, coceli = vassal, bondsman, companion, fellow, friend coicéilsine, cocéilsine, cocélsine = fellowship, clientship
Irish (Gaeilge)	céile [ˈceːlʲə] = companion, spouse céileachas = companionship, cohabitation, copulation céilí = friend call, visit, social evening, Irish dancing session céilíoch = person fond of social visits, sociable person céilíocht = sociableness, companionableness céiliúil = companionable coigéile = mate, companion coigéilsine = fellowship, companionship
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cèile [kʲeːlə] =fellow, partner, significant other, spouse, counterpart cèile-còmhraige = opponent, antagonist cèile-pòsta = married partner (husband or wife) cèileach [kʲeːləx] = entertaining cèileachadh [kʲeːləxəɣ]= participating/sharing in, twinning, partnering (of a city) cèiliche [kʲeːlɪçə] = visitor cèilidh [kʲeːlɪ] = ceilidh, visit, (act of) visiting cèilidheach [kʲeːlɪjəx] = companionable, fond of company, sociable
Manx (Gaelg)	keilley = match dy cheilley = joined, together e cheilley = fellow ry-cheilley =en masse, together, with each other kaylee = ceilidh
Proto-Brythonic	*kuɨlð = servant, companion
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cilit, cilid, kilid, kilyd = servant, companion
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cilydd [ˈkɪlɨ̞ð/ˈkiːlɪð] = fellow, companion, neighbour, enemy, other cilyddol = reciprocal, mutual at ei gilydd = together gyda’i gilydd = together ei gilydd = each other o bryd i’w gilydd = from time to time
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	cele = companion, fellow, one of two
Cornish (Kernewek)	kila = companion
Old Breton	kiled = friend
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	kile = the other (one), friend
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kile = associate, stooge, colleague, sidekick

Etymology: possibly the Proto-Celtic word originally meant ‘wayfarer’, from Proto-Indo-European *ḱey- (to settle, to be lying down) [source].

The English word ceilidh [ˈkeɪli] (an informal social gathering where traditional Irish or Scottish folk music is played, with dancing and storytelling; a ceilidh dance; to dance a ceilidh) was borrowed from Scottish Gaelic and/or from Irish [source]. Someone who attends a ceilidh is apparently a ceilidher [source].

The Welsh equivalent of a ceilidh is a twmpath, which also meanings hillock, knoll, mound, pile, gathering or assembly. It’s also a known as a twmpath dawns (folk-dance, barn dance, public dance) or noson lawen (“merry/joyful evening”). In Cornish a ceilidh is a troyll, which also means spiral or swirl, and in Breton they are known as fest-noz [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Near and Close

9th August 20239th August 2023 By Simon

Words for near, close and and and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	onkus = at onkus-tus = near, close, and
Old Irish (Goídelc)	ocus [ˈoɡus] = near, close, nearness, proximity, and
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ocus, acus = and, near, nearness, proximity com(ḟ)ocus, comacus = near, proximate, neighbouring; equidistant, proximity; relationship focus = near, close bean fagas, bean ḟogas = kinswoman
Irish (Gaeilge)	agus (⁊) [ˈɑɡəsˠ/ˈaɡəsˠ] = and, while, although, as agusóir = halting, inarticulate, speaker aguisín = addition, addendum fogas [ˈfˠʌɡəsˠ] = nearness, closeness, near, close fogasghaol = near relationship, near relative foisceacht = nearness, proximity bráthair fogas = near kinsman
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	agus (⁊) [agəs] = and, plus, as, while, although agusan = Tironian/Gaelic ampersand (⁊) fagas [fagəs] = close, near fagasg [fagəsg] = proximity, nearness fagasachd [fagəsəxg] = adjacency, nearness, proximity fagasach [fagəsəx] = adjacent faisg [faʃgʲ] = close, near faisgead [faʃgʲəd] = degree of nearness/proximity
Manx (Gaelg)	as = and, as faggys = almost, close, contiguous, handy, near, nearby, neighbouring faggys-yalloo = closeup faggysaght = adjacency, nearness
Old Welsh	ha, hac, hay, ac = and
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	a(c)= and agos = near, close agoseieit = close relations or friends
Welsh (Cymraeg)	a(c) [a(k), a(ɡ)] = and agos [ˈaɡɔs / ˈa(ː)ɡɔs] = near, close, almost, nearly, on the verge of, about to agosâd = a drawing near, approach agosaf, agosi = to draw near, approach agosaol = approaching agoseiaid = close relations or friends agosiad = close relation or friend agosrwydd = closeness, nearness, proximity agoster = closeness, nearness, proximity
Old Cornish	ha = and ogos = near, close
Middle Cornish (CerneweC)	ha(g), a = and ogas, oges, ogos, agos = near, neighbouring
Cornish (Kernewek)	ha(g) [ha(ɡ)] = and, plus, while hag erel (h.e.) = etc. hag oll = moreover ogas = adjoinging, close, near, almost, nearly, vicinity ogas ha = approximately ogas lowr = approximate yn ogas, en ogas = closely, nearby ogasti, ogatti = almost, nearly
Old Breton	a, ha, hac = and ocos = near, close
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	ha, hag, ham, haz = and hag all, ha a, hag e-se = etc. hogos, hegos, ogos, egos = almost, barely, close, near hogoster, hogosder = proximity hogozik, hogosicq, hogosic = almost, close, near
Breton (Brezhoneg)	ha(g) = and hag all (h.a.) = etc. hogos = near, close, almost hogosder = proximity

Etymology: not known [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionnaire diachronique du breton, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis

Blindness

3rd August 20233rd August 2023 By Simon

Words for blind, one-eyed and related words in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic	*dallos = blind
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dall = blind
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dall, dáll, = blind, dark, gloomy, daillín = blind man dalla(id) = to blind, deprive of sight, darken, obscure dallóc = a little blind animal, mole, leech
Irish (Gaeilge)	dall [d̪ˠaul̪ˠ/d̪ˠɑːl̪ˠ/d̪ˠɑl̪ˠ] = blind person, dull, uninformed person, dimness, gloom, obscurity, to blind, dazzle, daze, stupefy dallacán = purblind person, dim-witted person, fool, mask dallacántacht = purblindness, dim-wittedness dallachar = dazzle dalladh = blinding, dazzlement, plenty, lashings dallaigeanta = dull-witted dallamlán = stupid fool, dolt
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dall [daul̪ˠ] = blind, obscure, blind person dallaran = blind person dalladh [dal̪ˠəɣ] = blinding, misleading dall-bhrat = blindfold dallanach = dark, gloomy, inebriated dallta = blinded, deceived, mislead
Manx (Gaelg)	doal = blind, sightless, unseeing dallaghey = to befog, blind, daze, dazzle, glare doallaghey, doalley, doallee = blind, blinding
Proto-Brythonic	*dall [ˈdal͈] = blind
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	dall, dâll = blind, unseeing, dark, random dallaf = to blind, dazzle, deceive, darken dallineb, dallinep = blindness, folly, recklessness
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dall [da(ː)ɬ] = blind, unseeing, dark, random, purblind, ignorant, rash, thoughtless, mistaken, blind person dallaf, dallu = to blind, dazzle, deceive, darken dallaidd = blindness, purblind dallan = blind person dalledig = blinded, darkened dallineb = blindness, folly, recklessness
Old Cornish	dal = blind
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	dall = blind dalla = to (make) blind
Cornish (Kernewek)	dall = blind dalla = to blind dallhe = to blind, dazzle
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dall, dal = blind, blunt, blinkered dallaff, dallañ, dalliñ = to gouge out sb’s eyes, to blind, to fill a hole, to blunt, crumble dallente, dallentez, dallezh = blindness dallet = blinded
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dall [ˈdalː] = blind, blunt, blinkered, dead end dallentez, dallezh = blindness

Etymology: from PIE *dʰwl̥no-, from *dʰwolno (to dim, make obscure) [source].

Words from the same roots include dull and dwell in English, toll (great, nice, wonderful) in German, dol (crazy, silly, mad, mindless, irate) in Dutch, and dulls (crazy, mad) in Latvian.

Proto-Celtic	kaikos/kayko- = one-eyed, blind
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cáech [kaːi̯x] = blind in one eye, empty cáechaid = to blind cáechán = one-eyed person, blind creature
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cáech = blind in one eye, empty cáechaid = to blind cáechán = one-eyed person, dimsighted creature cáiche = state of being one-eyed, blind in one eye cáichén = an ignorant person
Irish (Gaeilge)	caoch [keːx/kiːx] = blind, purblind person / creature, empty, closed up; to blind, daze, dazzle, close, become blocked, wink caochadh = to wink, close caochadóir = purblind creature caochaíl = purblindness, blockage caochán = purblind creature, mole caochóg = purblind person, cubby-hole
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	caoch [kɯːx] = empty, hollow, blind (creature) caochag = empty / hollow object, dummy caochadh [kɯːxəɣ] = blinking, shutting one eye, winking, peeping, ogling bealach-caoch = cul-de-sac
Manx (Gaelg)	kyagh = weak-eyed kyaght = blindness kyragh = blind bollagh kyagh = cul-de-sac
Proto-Brythonic	*koɨg = vain, empty, one-eyed, blind (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	coeg, coec, koeg = vain, empty, false, deceitful; blind, one-eyed koegi to deride, mock, deteriorate; become blind koec ddall, koegddall = purblind, half-blind, shortsighted, one-eyed, squinting
Welsh (Cymraeg)	coeg [koːɨ̯ɡ/kɔi̯ɡ] = vain, empty, false, deceitful, mean, evil, good-for-nothing, arrogant, scornful, sarcastic; blind, one-eyed, squinting coegaf, coegi = to deride, mock, lampoon, use sarcasm; to be(come) worthless, deteriorate; to become blind, have defective eyesight, darken coegaidd = vain, empty, haughty, conceited, saucy coegathrawgar = pedantic coegathro = pedant coegbeth = worthless thing, triviality, trifle, bauble coegddall = purblind, half-blind, shortsighted, one-eyed, squinting
Old Cornish	cuic = one-eyed, blind
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	cuic = blind in one eye
Cornish (Kernewek)	koog = vain, worthless, barren, infertile

Etymology: from PIE *kéh₂ikos (one-eyed, blind) [source].

Words from the same roots include caecus (blind) and caecum (uncertainity, obscurity) in Latin, cécité (blindness) in French, ciego (blind, blind person, very drunk, caecum) in Spanish, and caecum (a part of the intestine) in English [source].

Incidentally, purblind means partially blind, dim-sighted, dim-witted, unintelligent, and used to mean blind or having one eye [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Wheels

30th July 202330th July 2023 By Simon

Words for wheel and related words in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic	*rotos = wheel, chariot
Gaulish	Rotomagos = placename* [see below]
Old Irish (Goídelc)	roth = disc, sphere, wheel rothmol = gyration
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	roth, routh = wheel, something circular or wheel-shaped, disc, sphere, circular brooch, wheel brooch, loop, noose roithled = the act of rotating or twirling roithlén = wheel roithreim = the rolling, rushing of wheels rothán = small wheel rothmol = wheel of a water mill, gyration, scrimmage
Irish (Gaeilge)	roth [ɾˠɔ(h)/ɾˠɞh] = wheel, bicycle rothach = wheeled, cyclic(al) rothadóir = wheelwright rothaí = cyclist rothaigh = to cycle rothaíocht = cycling rothán = small wheel, loop, ring, hank rothar = bicycle
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	roth [r̪ˠɔh] = wheel, halo, crown (in a mill) roth-fiaclach = cog roth-gaoithe = ventilator roth-uisge = water wheel roth-mór = millwheel, ferris wheel rothag = small wheel, small circle rothaiche = wheel, cyclist rothair = bicycle, bike, cycle, roller, cylinder rothaireachd = cycling rothair-motair = motorbike, motorcycle rothalan [r̪ˠɔhəl̪ˠan] = person or animal running in circles
Manx (Gaelg)	roar = bicycle, bike roaragh = cyclist roaraght = cycling roar-bree = motorcycle roar-slieau = mountain bike
Proto-Brythonic	*rrod = wheel
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	rot, rod, rhôd = wheel
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhod [r̥oːd] = wheel, spinning wheel, waterwheel, cogwheel, (round) shield), sphere, circle, orbit, firmament, heaven, (wheel of) fortune, fate, course, circuit, round, district, world rhod ddŵr waterwheel rhod wynt = windmill rhodellaf, rhoedellu = to whirl, twirl rhodig = small wheel, rowel (of spur)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	ros, rôs = circle, wheel
Cornish (Kernewek)	ros [ˈɹoːz] = wheel ros lovan = winch ros melin = mill wheel ros parys = spare wheel ros velin = millwheel ros-lewya = steering wheel rosella = to rotate, spin rosellans = rotation rosik = castor roskesya = roller skating roskis = rollerskates
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	rod, rot = wheel, spinning wheel rot melin, rod milin = millwheel
Breton (Brezhoneg)	rod [ˈroːt] = wheel rod-avel = wind turbine rod-vilin = millwheel rodal = to do a cartwheel rodeg = cycle rodell = loop rodellig = small curl, bouclette

Etymology: from PIE *Hret- (to run) [source].

The city of Rouen, the capital of Normandy in northern France, gets its name from the Latin Rōtomagus, which was the chief city of the Veliocasses in Gallia Lugdunensis (where Rouen is now), and was borrowed from Gaulish, from the Proto-Celtic *rotos (wheel) and *magos (field) [source].

Other words from the same roots include words for to run in Celtic languages, the Welsh name Rhys, and rota, rotor and rotate in English [source].

Proto-Celtic	*drokos = wheel
Old Irish (Goídelc)	droch [drox] = wheel, circlet drochet [ˈdrox(ʲ)ed] = bridge – from droch (wheel) and sét (path, way)
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	droch = wheel, circlet drochet, drochat, droget = bridge, causeway
Irish (Gaeilge)	droichead = bridge
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	droch [drɔx] = coach wheel (obselete) drochaid = bridge
Manx (Gaelg)	droghad = bridge, arch, gantry

Etymology: from PIE *dʰregʰ- (to run, drag, pull) [source].

Words from the same PIE root include drag, draw (to pull, drag) and retract in English, and դուրգ (durg – potter’s wheel) in Armenian [source].

Proto-Celtic	*olēnā = wheel
Old Welsh	olun, olin = wheel, circular, to rotate
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	olwyn, olvyn, ōlwyn = wheel olwynnyawc, olŵynog, olwŷnog = wheeled, turning, revolving
Welsh (Cymraeg)	olwyn [ˈɔlʊɨ̯n/ˈoːlʊi̯n] = wheel, shaft olwyn gocos cog wheel olwyn ddŵr = waterwheel olwyn lywio = streering wheel olwyndro = cartwheel olwyndroi = to cartwheel, spin olwyn(i)af, olwyn(i)o = to wheel, turn, revolve, roll olwyn(i)og = wheeled, turning, revolving olwynol = wheel-shaped, circular, revolving olwynwr = wheelwright, cyclist

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *Heh₃l- (to bow, bend, elbow) [source].

Words from elbow in Celtic languages come from the same PIE root via the Proto-Celtic *olīnā (elbow, angle) [more details], as do the English words elbow and ulna (one of the bones in the forearm, a.k.a. elbow bone) [source].

Irish (Gaeilge)	cuidhil [kiːlʲ/kiəlʲ] = spinning wheel (in Antrim)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cuidheall [kujəl̪ˠ] = wheel, coil cuidheall-shnìomha = spinning wheel cuibheall-iteachain = bobbin wheel saor-chuidhleachan = wheelwright
Manx (Gaelg)	queeyl(l) = wheel queeyl chairt = cartwheel queeylit = wheeled queeyllagh = cartwheel, rotary, wheeled, wheeling queelylley = rolling, wheeling whirling

Etymology: from Scots quhe(i)l (wheel), from Middle English whel (wheel), etc [source].

Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cuibhle [kuilə] = wheel, coil cathair-cuibhle = wheelchair cuibhle-shnìomha = ship’s wheel, steering wheel cuibhlearachd = wheeling, rolling, coiling cuibhle = millwheel, ferris wheel cuibhleas = wheelhouse cuibhleag = small coil, small eddy
Welsh (Cymraeg)	whil, wil = wheel w(h)ilaf, w(h)ilo = to wheel, roll w(h)ilber = wheelbarrow w(h)ilberaid = wheelbarrowful w(h)ilber(i)o = to carry in a wheelbarrow whilbws = wheelhouse
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	wheyl, wheal, whél = work, wheel

Etymology: from English wheel, from Middle English whel (wheel), from Old English hwēol (wheel), from Proto-Germanic *hweulō (wheels), from PIE *kʷékʷlom (wheel) from *kʷel- (to turn) [source].

According to MacBain’s An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language, the Gaelic cuibhle was borrowed from English [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Hard

27th July 2023 By Simon

Words for hard and related things in Celtic languages.

Hard

Proto-Celtic	*kaletos = hard, strong, cruel
Gaulish	Caleti (ethnonym)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	calad = hard, stingy, hardship
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	calad, calath, caladh = hard, stingy
Irish (Gaeilge)	caladh [ˈkɑl̪ˠə/ˈkalˠə/ˈkalˠu] = hard
Middle Welsh (Kymreac)	caled, kalet, calett = hard, rough, cruel caledi, kaledi = hardness, hardship, adversity kaledwch, cledwch = hardness, severity, cruelty, callousness
Welsh (Cymraeg)	caled = hard, rough, cruel, unfeeling, sore, severe, strict, thrifty, obstinate, abstruse, difficult, hardy, tough caledaf, caledu, caledo, cledo = to harden, dry, grow unfeeling or stubborn calededd = hardness, severity caleden = callus caledfyd = hardship, distress, adversity caled-galon = hard-hearted, callous caledi = hardness, hardship, adversity caledwch = hardness, severity, cruelty, callousness caledwedd = (computer) hardware
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	cales, calas, calys = hard, difficult caletter, calatter = hardness, difficulty calessa, calassa = hardest
Cornish (Kernewek)	kales = difficult, hard, severe, tough kalesweyth = hardware kaletter = difficulty, hardness penn kales = obstinate, stubborn
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	calet, kalet = hard, deep (sleep) caletaat, kaletaat = to harden, toughen up caleded = hardness, toughness caleder, calletter, caleder = hardness, toughness, difficulty
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kalet = hard, raw, crude kaleted = hardness, toughness kaleter = endurance kaledenn = hard, callus

Etymology: possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *ḱlH-eto- (cold), related to *kal- (hard) [source]. Words from the same roots include callus and callous in English, калити [kǎːliti] (to harden, temper) in Serbian, and callo (callus, corn, tripe) in Spanish [source].

Proto-Celtic	kroudis/krowdi- = rude
Old Irish (Goídelc)	crúaid = hard, harsh, stern crúadach = cruel, harsh crúaide = hardness crúadaigid = to harden, stiffen
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	crúaid, cruaidh = hard(y), harsh, stern, strict crúadach, cruadach = hard, cruel, harsh crúadagid, cruadhaigh = hardens, stiffens crúadáil, cruadhál = hardship, cruelty crúadóc, crúadhóg = hardship, strait, difficulty crúaide, cruaide = hardness, harshness
Irish (Gaeilge)	crua [kɾˠuə/kɾˠuəɟ/kɾˠuəj] = hard, firm, difficult, severe cruach [kɾˠuəx / kɾˠɔx] = steel cruachan = hardening cruachás = predicament, difficulty, distress cruachásach = in a difficulty, distressed cruacht = hardness, hardiness, stinginess cruara = hardware cruas = hardness, stinginess
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cruaidh [kruəj] = steel; stone anchor; hard, rocky ground cruaidh-chàs = danger, peril, difficulty, hardship cruaidh-fhortan = misfortune cruaidhead [kruəjəd] = degree of hardness cruaidheadh [kruəjəɣ] = solidifying, hardening, drying
Manx (Gaelg)	creoi = adamant, difficult, hardy, heartless, hard, solid, tough, bitter (frost), blistering (language) creoghey = to harden, forbear, set against creoighey = to harden, stiffen; hardening creoidys = hardihood, hardness creoighys = callosity, hardness, obduracy

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *krū- (blood), from Proto-Indo-European *krewh₂- (blood outside the body) [source]. Words from the same roots include crude, cruel and raw in English [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Celtiadur

Exploring connections between Celtic languages

Category: English

With and Without

Down Under

Take Note!

Boats and Ships

Fearful dread

Ceilidh Companions

Near and Close

Blindness

Wheels

Hard