Spinning, Twisting & Turning

2nd October 2024 By Simon

Words for spin, twist, turn and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	snīmus = spinning, weaving sniyeti = to turn, twist
Old Irish (Goídelc)	sníïd = to twist sním = spinning, twisting, vexation grief, anxiety
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	sníïd, sníit = to twists, bend, tie, contend, struggle, grieve, trouble, vex sním, snim = twisting, bending, shaping, trouble, care, grief, anxiety snímaid = to spin, twist
Irish (Gaeilge)	sníomh [ʃnʲiːvˠ/ʃnʲiːw] = spinning, twisting, twinning, struggle, strain, wrench, cre, anxiety; to spin, twist, strain, wrench, strive, struggle sníomhach = spinning, turning, twisting, anxious, concerned sníomhachán = (act of) spinning sníomhadán = spinneret sníomhaí = spinner sníomhaire = spindle
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	snìomh [ʃn̪ʲĩə̃v] = spinning, winding, wreathing, twisting, twining, twist, curl, sprain, wrench snìomhach [ʃn̪ʲiəvəx] = twisting, winding, spiral, tortuous, twisted snìomhachan [ʃn̪ʲəvəxan] = spinner (implement) snìomhadh [ʃn̪ʲĩə̃vəɣ] = spinning, winding, wreathing, twising snìomhaire [ʃn̪ʲiəvərʲə] = borer, auger, spinner snìomhte [ʃn̪ʲĩə̃vdʲə] = spin, entwined, twisted
Manx (Gaelg)	snee = crossness, offence, vexation sneeu = spin, spinning queeyl sneeuee = spinning wheel sneeuder = spinner
Proto-Brythonic	*nɨðid = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	nydd = spin, twist, perverseness, obstinacy, agitation, difficulty nydu [ˈnəðɨ/ˈnəði] = to spin (wool), twist, wind
Welsh (Cymraeg)	nydd [nɨːð/niːð] = spin, twist, perverseness, obstinacy, agitation, difficulty, honeysuckle, spun nyddu [ˈnəðɨ/ˈnəði] = to spin (wool), twist, wind nydd(i)wr = spinner, spinning-machine, nightjar, grasshopper warbler nyddlin = a spiral
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	nedhe, nedhé = to spin, turn, twist
Cornish (Kernewek)	nedha = to twist
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	nezaff = to spin, trick, fool, purr
Breton (Brezhoneg)	nez = twist, twisting nezadenn = spun thing nezadur = wiring nezañ [ˈneː(z)ã] = to spin, trick, fool, purr nezer = spinner nezerezh = spinning

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *(s)neh₁- (to spin, sew). Words from the same roots include needle, snood in English, naald (needle, pin) in Dutch, nähen (to sew) in German, snáth (thread, yarn, web) in Irish, and possibly snop (sheaf) in Czech [source].

See also the Pins & Needles post for some Celtic words related to needles, pins and thread.

Proto-Celtic	*kassos = curly, twisted, woven
Gaulish	kass- = twist kassis = curly (hair) *kassanos = oak (tree/wood)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cas = curly (haired) casaid = to twist, turn
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cas, cass = curly (hair) casaid, casaidh = to twist, bend
Irish (Gaeilge)	cas [kɑsˠ] = twisted, winding, curly, complicated, intricate, twisty, devious; to twist, turn, wind casadh [ˈkɑsˠə/ˈkasˠu(ː)] = to twist, turn, wind, spin, reproach
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cas [kas] = twist, bend, wind (up), gnash, oppose, turn against casadh [kasəɣ] = (act of) opposing, turning against, twisting, bending, gnashing casta [kasdə] = twisted, twined, curled, complex
Manx (Gaelg)	cassit = contorted, distorted, twirled, twisted cassee = coiling, twisting, winding cassey = to curl, distort, screw, spin, whirl cast = curly, curved, intricate, spun, warped, wrapped

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *kes- (to scrape, comb) [source]. Words from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Gaulish kassanos (oak) and Latin casnus, include casse (oak) in Occitan, cassanella (gall) in Catalan and chêne (oak) in French [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include hair in English, коса (kosa – hair) in Bulgarian, and kasa (braid) in Latvian [source].

See the Weaving Words post for some weaving-related Celtic words.

Proto-Brythonic	*tro = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	tro = rotation, revolution, turn(ing), stir(ing), twist, warp troat, troad, troead = rotation, revolution, orbit, turn(ing) troy, try, troi = to turn, spin
Welsh (Cymraeg)	tro [troː] = rotation, revolution, turn(ing), stir(ing), twist, warp, coil, ringlet tro(e)ad = rotation, revolution, orbit, turn(ing), stir(ing), twist, convolution, hinge tro(a)f, troi = to turn, spin, whirl, rotate, roll
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	tro = turn, circuit, occasion, manner, sort troillia = to turn, whirl
Cornish (Kernewek)	tro = cycle, occasion, round, turn troyll = spiral, swirl, ceilidh troyllya = to spin, swirl troyllyek = spiral troyllyer plasennow = record player
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	tro = movement, turn tro(u)im = to turn, spin
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	tro = round, surround, surroundings treiff = to turn, move
Breton (Brezhoneg)	tro [troː] = round, surround, surroundings tro-dro [troˈdroː] = around, towards treiñ = to spin

Etymology: uncertain. Possibly related to Latin torqueo (I turn) or Ancient Greek τρόπος (trópos – a turn) [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis

Voices

24th September 20241st October 2024 By Simon

Words for voice, word, sound and related things in Celtic languages.

Bangor Community Choir singing at Bodnant Garden / Côr Cymunedol Bangor yn canu yng Ngardd Bodnant

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*gutus = voice
Gaulish	gutus = voice (?) GVTVATER / gutuater** = priest / druid
Old Irish (Goídelc)	guth [ɡʊθ] = voice, word, sound
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	guth, gotha, gotho = voice, sound, word, vowel, aspersion, blame, censure, slander
Irish (Gaeilge)	guth [ɡɯh/ɡʊ(h)] = voice, human voice, blame, reproach, censure guta = vowel guthach = vocal, vocalic guthaigh = to voice, vocalize, sing, censure, reproach guthaíl = voicing, calling guthaíocht = vocalization, voice, vote gutháire = yell(ing), shout(ing) guthán = telephone
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	guth [guh] = voice, tone of voice, mention, word guth-cheòl = intonation guthach [guhəx] = vocal, vocalic, vocied guathachadh [guhəxəɣ] = (act of) calling, vocalizing, vocalization, voicing (in linguistics) guthaich [guhɪç] = call, vocalize, voice guthlag [guhl̪ˠag] = larynx guthlagail [guhl̪ˠagal] = laryngeal
Manx (Gaelg)	goo = voice, word, utterance, reputation, fame gooagh = loquacious, sonant, vocal, vocalic, voiced, wordy goolag = larynx

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰuH-tu-s (to call on, invoke), from *ǵʰewH- (to call on, invoke) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include zavêt (to cast a spell) in Latvian, զավեշտ (zavešt – joke, farce) in Armenia, звать (zvatʹ – to call, invite) in Russian, and зова (zova – to call, summon, name) in Bulgarian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	glór [ɡloːr] = voice, sound glórach = noisy
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	glór, glóir, glár = voice, sound, noise glórach = loud-voiced, noisy, vociferous glórda = loud, resonant glúarda = noisy, vociferous
Irish (Gaeilge)	glór [ɡl̪ˠoːɾˠ/ɡl̪ˠɔːɾˠ] = voice, human voice, speech, utterance, sound, noise glórach = loud-voiced, sonorous, noisy, vociferous, voiced (consonant, etc) glórachán = loud-voiced, vociferous person glóraí = loudness, sonorousness glóraigh = to voice, vocalize glóraíl = sound of voices, vociferation, noisiness glórmhach = tumult of voice, commotion, clamour
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	glòr [gl̪ˠɔːrʲ] = speech, utterance
Manx (Gaelg)	glare [ɡlɛːr] = voice, utterance, speech, language glaraghey = voice glareydagh = linguistic, linguist

Etymology: possibly from Latin glōria (glory, renown, fame, honour) [source], from Proto-Indo-European *ǵneh₃- (to know, recognize). Words from the same roots include canny, cunning, glory and know in English; gloria (glory, praise) in Italian; and glorie (glory, great beauty, renown, splendour) in Dutch [source].

Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	lew, llef = shout, cry, wail, roar, yell, sound, voice, speech, utterance llevein, lleuein, llefain = to cry (out), exclaim, shout, lament, call, entreat, weep, shout leuan = (loud) shout, cry, scream leueir, lawaraw, llafaro = to speak, utter, say, tell
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llef [ɬɛv] = shout, cry, wail, roar, yell, sound, voice, speech, utterance llefaf, llefain = to cry (out), exclaim, shout, lament, call, entreat, weep, shout llefair = enunciation, spoken word, speech, talkative adlef [ˈadlɛv] = echo, reverberation
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	lef, lêf = voice, sound, cry lefa = to cry aloud, shout
Cornish (Kernewek)	lev = voice dre lev = vocal levbost = voicemail
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	lem = complaint, groan, wail
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	leff = complaint, groan, wail leuaff = to cry, moan
Breton (Brezhoneg)	leñv, leñ = groan, complaint, plaintive cry, moaning; voice, cry (archaic) leñvañ [ˈlẽː.vã] = to cry, scream, groan, bleat leñver = to cry leñverez = crying

Etymology: from Proto-Brythonic *laβar (eloquent), from Proto-Celtic *ɸlabros (talkative) [source]. For more related words, see the Celtiadur post Talkative

Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	lleis = voice lleisiaf, lleisiaw, lleisio = to use the voice, vocalize, sing
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llais [ɬai̯s/ɬai̯ʃ] = voice, vocal capacity, talk, report, tidings, rumour, vote lleisgar = vociferous, loud-mouthed, resonant lleisiad = voicing, sounding, tone, intonation lleisio [ˈɬei̯ʃɔ] = to use the voice, vocalize, sing lleisiol [ˈɬei̯ʃɔl] = vocal, spoken, oral, voiced lleisydd [ˈɬei̯sɨ̞ð/ˈɬei̯sɪð] = vocalist, loud hailer, loudspeaker

Etymology: maybe from Welsh llafar (loud, vociferous, sonorous, speech, voice, sound) [source], from Proto-Brythonic *laβar (eloquent), from Proto-Celtic *ɸlabros (talkative), possibly from Proto-Indo-European *pl̥b-ró-s, from *pleb- (to babble) [source]. See also the Celtiadur post Talkative

Old Breton (Brethonoc)	*voes = voice
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	moez = voice
Breton (Brezhoneg)	mouezh = voice, vote mouezhian = to express oneself, vote mouezhierezh = election, electorate

Etymology: from Old French voiz (voice), from Latin vōcem (), from vōx (voice, accent, speech, word), from Proto-Italic *wōks, from Proto-Indo-European *wṓkʷs (speech, voice), from wekʷ- (to speak, sound out) [source]. Words from the same roots include vocal, voice and vowel in English, and voix (voice, vote) in French [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	son = sound, word
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	son, soun, són = sound, word, name
Irish (Gaeilge)	son = sound; word, name (literary) sonach = sonic sonarach = ringing sound, clangour sonda = sonant, sonorous sondáil = to sound sondas = sonorousness, sonority
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sòn† = sound, voice, word
Manx (Gaelg)	sonn = sound sonnagh = sonic
Proto-Brythonic	*son = sound (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	son, sson = report, rumour, mention, word, message, talk, fame, sound, noise, clamour sonfawr, sonuaỽr, sonuawr = sonorous, noisy, audible, loquacious sonyo, sonio = to mention, rumour, proclaim, talk, speak, say, utter
Welsh (Cymraeg)	sôn [soːn] = report, rumour, mention, word, message, talk, fame, sound, noise, clamour sonfawr = sonorous, noisy, audible, loquacious soniaf, sôn, sonio = to mention, rumour, proclaim, talk, speak, say, utter soniarus = sonorous, resounat, vibrant sŵn [sʊːn] = sound, noise, clmour, din, report, rumour, talk
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	son, sôn = sound, noise, report, speech
Cornish (Kernewek)	son = noise, sound sonek = sonic sonlergh = soundtrack sononieth = acoustics sononiethel = acoutic sonskrif = recording sonskrifa = to record
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	soun, son = sound sounaff = to ring, resound
Breton (Brezhoneg)	son [sɔ̃ːn] = sound, song seniñ [ˈsẽːnĩ] = to ring, resound, honk, sing, rustle (water), play (an instrument) soner = to ring, say, pronounce sonerez [sɔ̃.ˈneː.res] = doorbell, bell, horn sonerezh = music, sound system

Etymology: from Latin sonus (sound, noise, pitch, speech, tone, voice), from Proto-Indo-European *swónh₂os, from *swenh₂- (to sound) [source]. Words from the same roots include resound, sonnet, sonic, sound and swan in English, sonner (to sound, ring) in French, sonar (to sound, ring, play) in Spanish, honni (to allege, claim, assert) in Welsh, and seinn (to sing, play an instrument) in Irish and Scottish Gaelic [source].

The Welsh word sŵn was borrowed from Middle English soun (sound), while sôn comes from Latin via Middle Welsh and Proto-Brythonic. They both ultimately come from the same PIE roots.

Leader in Chief

16th September 2024 By Simon

Words for chief, leader, prince and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	towissus, tuwestus tuwissus = act of leading, beginning, leadership towissākos = chief, primary, first
Primitive Irish	ᚈᚑᚃᚔᚄᚐᚉᚔ (tovisaci) = chief (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	tús, tuus [tuːs] = beginning, forefront toísech [ˈtoːi̯sʲəx] = leader, chief, first, initial, primary
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	tús, tuus = act of leading, forefront, precedence, pre-eminence, rank toísech, tósich, toissech = first, former, prior, first in importance, sooner, leader, chief toísechda = first toísecht, taiseachda, taiseachta = chieftainship, act of leading toísenach, taoisinach = leadership, chieftainship
Irish (Gaeilge)	tús [t̪ˠuːsˠ] = beginning, commencement, start, origin, forward, leading, position, precedence, pick, choice taoiseach [ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx] = chieftain, leader, man of substance, important person, decent/generous person ; first, former Taoiseach = (Irish) Prime Minister, Taoiseach taoiseacht = chieftainship, leadership
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	tùs [tuːs] = beginning, origin, inception tòiseach [tɔʃəx] = beginning, front, van, forefront, bow (of a ship); chief of a clan or tribe Tòiseach [tɔːʃɪç] = a Macintosh, any member of Clan MacKintosh tòiseachail [tɔʃəxal] = primitive, rudimentary tòiseachd [tɔʃəxg] = (act of) beginning, starting, precedence
Manx (Gaelg)	tosh = chieftain toshiagh = chief(tain), leader, premier, offset, toe, forepart toshiaght = beginning, fore(front), lead, opening, outset, bow (of a ship) Toshiaght Arree = February (“start of spring”) Toshiaght Fouyir = August (“start of autumn”) Toshiaght Gheuree = November (“start of winter”) toshiaghey = to begin, start, initiate
Proto-Brythonic	togwɨs = leadership towɨssọg = leader, chief, king, prince
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	tywys = forward position, front, fore, leader, lead, guidance towys, tywyssav = to lead, guide, show the way, escort, direct touyssoc, tywyssaỽc, tywyssavc, tywyssawc, tyỽyssaỽc = prince, lore, sovereign, leader, ruler, governor, captain, guide, leader tehuyokaet, tywyssogaeth = principality, kingdom, rule, reign, sovereignty tywysoges = princess, female sovereign, ruler or leader
Welsh (Cymraeg)	tywys [təu̯.ˈis] = forward position, front, fore, leader, lead, guidance tywysu, tywys(i)o = to lead, guide, show the way, escort, direct tywysiad = leading, leadership, guidance, direction, introduction, (water) conduit tywysog [təu̯.ˈəsɔɡ/ˈtwəsɔɡ] = prince, lord, sovereign, leader, ruler, governor, captain, guide, leader tywysog(i)aeth = principality, kingdom, rule, reign, sovereignty, supremacy, government tywysogaidd = princely, royal, noble, splendid tywysoges = princess, female sovereign, ruler or leader
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	toguisoc = ?

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *towissus (leadership), *to- (to(wards)) and *wissus (knowledge), Proto-Indo-European *wéydtus, from *weyd- (to see) [source]. Words from the same roots include pavilion in English, papillon (butterfly, brilliant, versatile and inconstant person) in French, farfalla (butterfly, bow tie, butterly-shaped pasta) in Italian, papion (bowtie) in Romanian, paipala (quail) in Latvian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	úachtarán = chief, leader
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	úachtarán, uachtarán = head, leader, chief, president, governor, ruler, overseer
Irish (Gaeilge)	uachtarán [uəxt̪ˠəɾˠɑːnˠ] = president, head, superior, headmaster, landowner (archaic) Uachtarán = President uachtaránacht = presidency, authority, power
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	uachdaran [uəxgəran] = laird, landowner, proprietor, superior uachdaranach [uəxgərənəx] = superior, paramount uachdaranachd [uəxgərənəxg] = dominion, supremacy uachdaranas [uəxgranəs] = jurisdiction
Manx (Gaelg)	eaghtyran(e) = president, superior, chief eaghtyraneagh = presidential eaghtyraneys = presidency

Etymology: from Old Irish *úachtar (surface, top, cream), from Proto-Celtic *ouxteros (upper), from *(o)uxs- (up) and *wissus (knowledge), Proto-Indo-European *h₃ewp- (up) [source]. Words for Up Above, etc in Celtic languages come from the same roots.

Proto-Brythonic	*penno-tam-īkos = chief, leader
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pendewic, pen(n)deuic, pendefig = chief, leader, ruler, king, prince, lord, noble(man), gentleman pendevigiaeth, pendeuigaeth = kingship, principality, supremacy, pre-eminence, domination, government, power pendevigyeid = aristocratic, noble
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pendefig = chief, leader, ruler, king, prince, lord, noble(man), gentleman pendefigaeth = kingship, principality, supremacy, pre-eminence, domination, government, power pendefig(i)aidd = aristocratic, noble pendefiges = queen, lady, peeress, noblewoman
Old Cornish	pendeuig = prince, chief, noble(man)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pendevig, pensevic, pednz(h)ivig = prince, chief, noble(man), principal pednzivigian = nobility, gentry
Cornish (Kernewek)	pennseviges, pednsyviges = princess pennsevigeth = principality pennsevik, pednsyvik = chief, noble, prince
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	*pendemic = rich (?)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	pynuizyc, pinuisic, pinuizic = rich man pinuizigaez = wealth pinuizic, pinuzic = rich pinuizicat = to enrich, to get rich
Breton (Brezhoneg)	pinvidik [pĩnˈviːdik] = rich pinvidikaat = to enrich, to get rich pinvidikaerezh = enrichment, wealth

Etymology: from Proto-Brythonic *penno-tamos = the most in chief, from *penn (head), from Proto-Celtic *kʷennom (head), the origins of which are not known [source].

More words for prince, chief, ruler, etc can be found in the Celtiadur posts Lord, Ruler and Country and Land.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Leathery Hide

10th September 202410th September 2024 By Simon

Words for leather, hide and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*(ɸ)letros = leather, hide
Old Irish (Goídelc)	lethar = leather, skin
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lethar, leathar, lethor [ˈl͈ʲeθər] = skin, leather, hide lethrad = leather harness
Irish (Gaeilge)	leathar [ˈl̠ʲahəɾˠ] = skin, hide, leather leathrach = leathern, leathery
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	leathar [l̪ʲɛhər] = leather, leathery, leathern leatharach [l̪ʲɛhərəx] = leathery, like leather, coriaceous leathrachail [l̪ʲɛrəxal] = leathery
Manx (Gaelg)	l(h)iare (n.) = leather, leather equipment, strop l(h)iareagh (adj.) = leather, leathern
Proto-Brythonic	*lledr = leather
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	lledyr, lledr = leather, parchment, vellum, skin, hide lletrin = made of leather or hide, leathern
Welsh (Cymraeg)	lledr [ɬɛdr/ˈɬeːdɛr] = leather, parchment, vellum, skin, hide lledro, lledru = to cover with leather, become leathery lledraidd = leathery, tough, coriaceous lledrin = made of leather or hide, leathern lledrwr, lledrydd = leather manufacturer, leather merchant, tanner, currier
Cornish (Kernewek)	ledher = leather ledhrek = leathery
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	ledr = leather
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	lezr = leather
Breton (Brezhoneg)	lêr/ler [lɛːr] = leather lêran, lêrañ = to garnish with leather lêrek [ˈlɛːrek] = tough lêrenn = strap, belt lêrennan, lêrennañ = to garnish with strips, to tan

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *letrom (leather), or from PIE *pél-tro-m, from *pel- (to cover, wrap; skin, hide, cloth). Words for leather and related things in Germanic languages, such as leather in English, Leder in German, leer in Dutch, were possibly borrowed from Proto-Celtic *(ɸ)letros [source].

Words from the same PIE root include fell (skin, hide, pelt), film, pall and pelt in English; vel (skin, hide, fur, pelt) in Dutch; fjäll ([fish / reptile] scale) in Swedish; piel (skin, fur) in Spanish, and peau (skin, hide, fur) in French [source].

For other words for skin, see the Surfaces post on the Celtiadur.

Tented Pavilions

4th September 202414th September 2024 By Simon

Words for tents, pavilions and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	pupall [ˈpubal͈] = tent
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	pupall, pupaill, pupla = tent, pavilion, awning
Irish (Gaeilge)	puball [ˈpˠʊbˠəl̪ˠ] = tent, pavilion
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	pùball [puːbəl̪ˠ] = marquee, pavilion, tent pùballach = tented, full of tents or booths
Proto-Brythonic	*pėbɨll = tent (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pebyll = tent
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pabell, pebyll [ˈpabɛɬ] = tent, dwelling, portable shelter, camp, pavilion, tabernacle, booth, canopy, arbour, bower, sanctuary; mantle, cloak pabell(i)af, pabelllu, pabellio = to pitch a tent, camp, encamp, dwell pabellog = held in a tent, full of tents
Cornish (Kernewek)	pabel = pavilion
Breton (Brezhoneg)	pabell [pɑː.bɛl] = pavilion, large tent, marquee

Etymology: from Vulgar Latin păpiliō, from Latin pāpiliō (butterfly, moth, soul of a dead person, tent), probably a reduplicated form of Proto-Indo-European *pal- (to feel, touch, shake) [source]. The Breton word pabell was borrowed from Welsh [source].

Words from the same roots include pavilion in English, papillon (butterfly, brilliant, versatile and inconstant person) in French, farfalla (butterfly, bow tie, butterly-shaped pasta) in Italian, papion (bowtie) in Romanian, paipala (quail) in Latvian [source].

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	pailliún = tent, pavilion
Irish (Gaeilge)	pailliún = pavilion
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	pàillean [paːlʲan] = pavilion, tabernacle pàillean còmhlain = bandstand
Manx (Gaelg)	paal = pavilion, pen, hedge, fence, coop, enclosure, ring, enclave paalan = booth, tent paalan buillvollee = marquee paalan clagganagh = bell tent
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	pauillon = pavilion, tent
Breton (Brezhoneg)	pavilhon = pavilion, tent

Etymology: from Latin palla (cloak, mantle), possibly from Proto-Indo-European *pel- (to cover, to wrap, skin, hide, cloth), or possibly a substrate loan. Words from the same roots include camouflage, film, muffle, pall and pelt in English, piel (skin, fur) in Spanish, and peau (skin, hide, fur) in French [source].

Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	lluesteu, lluest = tent lluestu = to camp, live under canvas, etc lluestuy = tent, booth, shieling, cottage, lodge, cabin, hut
Welsh (Cymraeg)	lluest [ˈɬɨ.ɛst] = tent lluestaf, lluestu = to lodge temporarily in the open, in a tent or in tents, live under canvas, accomodate, quarter, billet, pitch tent(s), set up camp lluestai = quartermaster lluestfa = camp, encampment, military quarters, barracks lluesty [ˈɬjɛstɨ̞/ˈɬjɛsti] = tent, booth, shieling, cottage, lodge, cabin, hut

Etymology: from llu (host, multitude) and gwest (lodging) [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	tabernacuil [ˈpubal͈] = booth, tabernacle, tent
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	tabernacuil, tabernacul = tent, booth, hut, heaven, tabernacle, temple, shrine
Irish (Gaeilge)	taibernacal = tabernacle
Manx (Gaelg)	tabernacle = tabernacle
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	tabernacl = tabernacle
Breton (Brezhoneg)	tabernakl, tabarlank [taˈbɛr.nak(l)] = tabernacle

Etymology: from Latin tabernāculum (tent, tabernacle), from taberna (shop, store, inn, tavern, saloon, hut, shed), from trabs (timber, beam, rafter, tree trunk), from PIE *treb- (wooden beam). Words from the same roots include tabernacle and tavern in English, taberna (pub, tavern) in Spanish, tafarn (pub, tavern) in Welsh, and other words for tavern / pub in Celtic languages [source].

Furrowed Trenches

31st August 202431st August 2024 By Simon

Words for furrow, trench and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	ɸrikā = furrow enterɸrikyā = furrow
Gaulish	rikā/ricā = furrow
Old Irish (Goídelc)	rech = furrow etrech = furrow
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	etarche, etrige, eitre = furrow, groove, channel
Irish (Gaeilge)	eitre [ˈɛtʲəɾʲə] = furrow, groove, ridge eitreach = furrowed, grooved, rifled eitrigh = furrow, groove
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	eitre = trench, furrow
Manx (Gaelg)	eerey = furrow length, plough length
Proto-Brythonic	*rrɨx = furrow
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	rych, rich, rrych = trench, ditch, furrow, groove
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhych [r̥ɨːχ/r̥iːχ] = trench, ditch, furrow, groove, streak, wrinkle, cleft, cleavage rhychiad = crease, wrinkle, furrowing, trenching, chamfering rhych(i)og = furrowed, wrinkled, shrivelled rhychu = to cut a trench, cut into rows, plough, groove, corrugate, make or become wrinkled
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	rec = furrow
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	rec = furrow
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reg = line, furrow

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *pr̥keh₂ (furrow), from *perḱ- (to open, rip up, dig) [source].

Words from the same Proto-Celtic roots, via Gaulish *rikā (furrow) and Latin riga (line, stripe), include rega (furrow, ladder / run [in a stocking]) in Catalan, raie (stripe, parting, line) in French, porca (ridge between furrows, balk line) in Italian, alporquia (layering – developing a new plant from the branch of a tree) in Portuguese, porcoi (haystack, hay bale, heap, pile, bunch) in Romanian, and erreka (river, stream, ravine) in Basque [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include furrow, farrow and pig in English, Furche (furrow) in German, fåra (furrow, groove) in Swedish, porsas (piglet, pork) in Finnish, and arc [aɾˠk] (piglet) in Irish [source].

Other words for Ditches and Trenches and Grave Ditches in Celtic languages.

Yoked Bonds

27th August 2024 By Simon

Words for yoke, bond and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	yugom = yoke komyungis = (?)
Gaulish	yugom = yoke (?) Weryugos = personal name
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cuing = yoke
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cuing, coing = yoke, burden, duty, sway, discipline, behaviour
Irish (Gaeilge)	cuing [kiːɲɟ/kɪɲ] = yoke, bond, obligation, tie, beam, narrow neck of land (as between two lakes) cuingealach = jugular cuingigh = to yoke, enjoin cuingir = yoke, pair, couple, group, herd cuingleánach = yoked cuingrigh = yoke, couple
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cuing [kɯ̃ĩŋʲgʲ] = yoke, asthma, bond, obligation cuinge [kɯ̃ĩŋʲgʲə] = narrow place, passage, pass, difficulty, limitation cuingeach [kɯ̃ĩŋʲgʲəx] = asthmatic cuingeachadh [kɯ̃ĩŋʲgʲəxəɣ] = (act of) yoking, abridgement, constraining, restricting, constraint cuingeachail [kɯiŋʲgʲəxal] = limiting, restrictive cuingealach [kɯ̃ĩŋʲgʲəl̪ˠəx] = restricted, shackled, constricted
Manx (Gaelg)	quing = yoke, brace, team of oxen, (balance) beam quingaghey = to subjugate, yoke quingey = to yoke quingit = yoked
Proto-Brythonic	*jọw = yoke
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	iou = yoke
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	iou, yeu, iau, jav = yoke
Welsh (Cymraeg)	iau [jaɨ̯/jai̯] = yoke, pair of oxen, sway, dominion, authority, discipline, oppression
Old Cornish	ieu = yoke
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	yeu = yoke
Cornish (Kernewek)	yew = yoke war yew = onward
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	yeu, yau = yoke
Breton (Brezhoneg)	yev [jew] = yoke, servitude yevad = yoke, hitch, team, coupling yevan, yevañ = to yoke, subjugate, enslave

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *yugóm (yoke) or *yung, from *yewg- (to join, yoke, tie together) [source]. Words from the same roots include adjunct, conjugate, join, jugular, junction, yoga and yoke in English, joindre (to join up, reach, contact) in French, and junto (together, joined, next to) in Spanish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*wedos = yoke, harness
Old Irish (Goídelc)	fedan = band, carrying, company, drawing feidid [ˈɸʲeðʲiðʲ] = to bring, lead
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	fedan, feadhan, fedhain = (act of) carrying, conveying, carriage, harness, band, company, part, some feidid, fedid = to bring, lead, refer, apply
Irish (Gaeilge)	feadhain = band, troop, company
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	feadhain = team of horses
Manx (Gaelg)	fwirran = staff, team
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gued, guet, gved, gwedd = yoke, harness guedu, gwedha = to be coupled with a yoke, be yoked gwedeu, guedeu = traces, draught-harness gwedhau = to submit, pay homage
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gwedd [ɡweːð] = yoke, harness, team (of horses, oxen, etc), bondage, captivity, submission, humility, homage, offspring, progeny, children gweddaf, gweddu = to be coupled with a yoke, be yoked, submit, humble oneself gweddau = traces, draught-harness

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *wedʰ- (to bind, secure, pledge, guarantee, lead) [source]. Words from the same roots include gage, wage, wager and wed in English, Wette (bet) in German, and gage (pledge, guarantee, deposit) in French [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	mám [maːm] = yoke
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	mám = yoke
Irish (Gaeilge)	mám = yoke

Etymology: ? [source].

Grinding Mills

21st August 2024 By Simon

Words for grind, crush, mill and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*malati = to grind, crush
Old Irish (Goídelc)	meilid = to crush, grind, sharpen, eat con·meil = to grind together
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	melaid, meilid = to grind, crush, sharpen, use, consume (esp. food) con-meil, coimlid, cuimlid, comlaid = to rub, grind together, attach, consume, destroy
Irish (Gaeilge)	meil [mʲɛlʲ] = to grind, crush meilim = to grind meilt = grinding, crushing, consuming, spending, wasting, incessant talk meilteach = grinding, crushing, consuming meilteoir = grinder, crusher meilteoireacht = (act of) grinding, crushing meiltire = incessant talker, chatterer
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	meil [mel̪] = (to) grind, mill, pulverize, masticate meileach [meləx] = grinding, pertaining to or abounding in grinders/mills; finely ground flour meileadh [mɛl̪ʲɛvadʲ] = grinding, milling, pulverizing, masticating meilt [meldʲ] = grinding meilte [meldʲə] = ground, milled, pulverized, masticated meiltear, meileadair [meldʲər / melədɪrʲ] = grinder
Manx (Gaelg)	beihll = to grind, pulverize; pulverization beihlleyder = grinder, pulverizer beihllinder = grinder bleih = grind, grist; duffer, halfling, hobbledehoy, ninny, triffler bleihit = ground bleihder = grinder, molar
Proto-Brythonic	*malɨd = to grind, crush
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	malu, mâlu = to grind, crush, pulverise, break, shatter, smash
Welsh (Cymraeg)	malu [ˈma(ː)li] = to grind, crush, pulverise, break, shatter, smash, trample, chop, sharpen, destroy, utter, speak, recite (poetry) malu awyr = to talk idly, talk nonsense, blather (“to grind air”) malaid = finely ground, ground to a powder malurio = to break into fragments, shatter, smash, grind, crumble, reduce to dust, pulverise malwr [ˈmalʊr / ˈma(ː)lʊr] = grinder, mincer, molar, miller; speaker, utterer, babbler, chatterer
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	melias = to reduce, power, grind
Cornish (Kernewek)	mala = to grind maler = grinder melyas = to grind
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	malaff = to grind
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	malaff = to grind
Breton (Brezhoneg)	malañ [ˈmɑːlã] = to grind, cruse, seize malad = ground things maladeg, maladur = grinding maler [ˈmɑːlɛr] = miller malerez [ma.leː.res] = grinder, vegetable mill

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *ml̥h₂-é-ti, from *melh₂- (to crush, grind). Words from the same roots include maelstrom (a large and violent whirlpool) and meal (the coarse-ground edible part of various grains often used to feed animals) in English, moudre (to grind), meule (grindstone, millstone) and moulin (mill, windmill) in French, and moler (to grind, mill), and words for mill in Celtic languages – see below [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	muilend = mill muileóir = miller
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	muilend, muilund = mill muileóir, moilleóir = miller
Irish (Gaeilge)	muileann [ˈmˠɪlʲən̪ˠ] = mill, grinding apparatus, manufactory muileann uisce = watermill muileann gaoithe = windmill, pinwheel muileann iarainn = ironworks muileann sábhadóireachta = sawmill muileóir = miller, mill owner muileóireacht = (act of) milling
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	muileann [mul̪ʲən̪ˠ] = mill muileann-gaoithe = windmill muileann-sàbhaidh = sawmill muileann-uisge = watermill muilear [mul̪ʲər] = miller muilearachd [mul̪ʲərəxg] = milling, grinding
Manx (Gaelg)	mwyllin = mill, factory mwyllin geayee = windmill mwyllin saaual = sawmill mwyllin ushtey = watermill mwyllar = miller, mill owner mwyllaragh, mwyllarys = milling
Proto-Brythonic	*melɨn = mill
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	melyn, melin = mill melin wynt = windmill melina = to grind, mill melinyt, melinyd, melinid = miller, grinder
Welsh (Cymraeg)	melin [ˈmɛlɪn] = mill, factory melin wynt = windmill melin lif(anu) = sawmill melin ddŵr = watermill melina(f), melino = to grind, mill melinwr = miller, mill owner melinydd = miller, grinder, molar melinyddiaeth = the craft of milling
Old Cornish	melin = mill
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	melin, belin = mill
Cornish (Kernewek)	melin, belin = mill melin dhowr = watermill melin wyns = windmill meliner / melinores, belender = miller melinji = millhouse
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	molin = mill
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	melin = mill
Breton (Brezhoneg)	milin, melin [ˈmiː.lĩn] = mill, factory milin-avel [mi.lĩ.ˈnɑː.vɛl] = windmill milin-dour, melin-dour [milĩnˈduːr] = watermill milinan, milinañ = to mill, rotate miliner, meilher = miller milinerezh = milling

Etymology: from Late Latin molinum (a mill), from molīnus (mill), molō (to grin or mill), from Proto-Italic *melō (to grind), from Proto-Indo-European *mélh₂-ti, from *melh₂- (to grind, crush) [source].

A Meeting of Assemblies

14th August 202414th August 2024 By Simon

Words for meeting, assembly and related gatherings in Celtic languages.

Dáil na nÓg – Ireland’s Youth Parliament

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*datlā = assembly, meeting
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dál = meeting, encounter, judgement, sentence, decree, dispensing, distribution, division, tribe comdál = assembly, meeting
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dál, dáil = meeting, encounter, conference, assembly, convention, court; case, dispute, controversy; judgement, decree, sentence, law; agreement, contract, covenant dál-loc, dálluc = meeting place dál-ṡuide, dálṡuidae = judgement-seat, forum dál-tech = meeting house comdál, comdhail, comdāl = meeting, tryst, assembly, conference
Irish (Gaeilge)	dáil [d̪ˠɑːlʲ / d̪ˠaːlʲ] = meeting, tryst, encounter, assembly, convention, match-making gathering, betrothal, legislative assembly, parliament, distrubtion, decree, judgement, matter, condition, affair Dáil Éireann = the lower house of the Parliament of Ireland dáilcheantar = (parliamentary) constituency dáileach = distributive dáileacháin = distribution dáileán = handout, leaflet dáileog = little portion, dose dáileoir = distributor, dispenser dálach = found of meetings, of company; suitable for gatherings comhdháil = meeting, tryst, convention, congress
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dàil [daːl] = agreement, covenant, condition, circumstance, history còmhdhàil [kɔ̃ː.al] = congress, convention, meeting, encounter, transport, group of people mòr-dhàil [moːrɣal] = congress, assmebly
Manx (Gaelg)	coardail = accord, agreement, covenant, convention, compromise coardailys = agreement, compliance, compromise, concord, harmony
Proto-Brythonic	*dadl [ˈdadl] = assembly, meeting
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	dat = meeting, assembly, council, court
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	daddyl, dadyl, dadl, datlev = argument, dispute, controversy, plea, lawsuit, complaint; meeting, assembly, council, court; account, transaction; battle, fight dadleu, dadlev, datleu = arguement, reasoning, controversy, contention, dispute; meeting, assembly, council, business, proceedings; court of lawm assizes, lawsuit, pleading, plea; battle, fight dadlewad, dadleuad = pleading, debate, disputation, intercession dadleu, dadlew = to argue, debate, dispute dadleuty, dadlaudy = court of law, guildhall, forum, parliament (house); theatre dadleuwr, dadylewr = advocate, counsel, solicitor, attorney; litigant kinatlet, kynnadled = conference, assembly, congress
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dadl [dadl] = argument, debate, wrangle, controversy, contention, plea, lawsuit, complaint dadlau = arguement, reasoning, controversy, contention, dispute dadl(eu)af, dadl(a)u = to argue, debate, dispute dadleuol = controversial, debatable dadleuwr, dadylewr = advocate, counsel, solicitor, attorney, debater, disputant cynhadledd = conference, assembly, congress
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	dadyl, dadl, datl = assembly, forum (?) dadloyer = speaker, orator
Cornish (Kernewek)	dadhel = arguement, discussion, dispute dadhelor(es) = debater, orator dadhelva = debate dadhla = to argue, debate, discuss
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	dadl = quarrel, arguement
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dael = quarrel, arguement
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dael = quarrel, arguement daelañ = to discuss, dispute

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *dʰh̥₁-tl-eh₂, from *dʰeh₁- (to do, put, place) [source]. Words from the same roots include odd, wood, word, deed, theme and many more in English, oord (place, region) in Dutch, and soler (to get used to, tend to) in Spanish [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	cruinn = circular, globular, round
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cruinn = round, globular, compact, precise, assembled, cruinniugad, crunnaghadh = (act of) gathering, collecting, assembling
Irish (Gaeilge)	cruinn [kɾˠiːnʲ] = round, gathered, exact, accurate, concentrated cruinniú [ˈkɾˠɪn̠ʲuː] = gathering, meeting, assemblage cruinniúchán = (act of) gathering cruinnitheoir = gatherer, collector cruinnigh = to gather, assemble, collect, draw together, summon up, recover, converge, focus
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cruinneachadh [krɯ̪ʲəxəɣ] = (to) gather, assemble, collect, accumulate; gathering, assembly, collection, accumulation cruinnich [krɯn̪ʲɪç] = related to a mòd, courtly, fond of meetings cruinneachail [krɯn̪ʲəxal] = (ac)cumulative cruinneachair [krɯn̪ʲəxɛrʲ] = gatherer neach-cruinneachaidh = collector, gatherer talla-cruinneachaidh = meeting hall
Manx (Gaelg)	cruinnaght = assembly, function, gathering, event cruinnaghey = assemblage, congregation; to gather, focus, huddle, sum up cruinneyder = gatherer
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	krynoi, crynói = to gather, hoard, amass, make round, roll up crynoat = a bending, stooping
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cryn(h)oad = the act of gathering together, compendium, summary, digest, assembly crynhoi = to muster, assemble, gather, hoard, amass, make round, roll up crynhofa = assembly, collection, gathering, store, reservoir crynhowr = one who collects or gathers together crynoëdig = gathered together, abridged

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic krundis (round), which probably from a non-Indo-European substrate language. [source]. Words for round in Celtic languages come from the same roots.

Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	mòd [mɔːd] = assembly, meeting, court of justice, mòd (cultural festival) mòdach [mɔːdəx] = related to a mòd, courtly, fond of meetings mòd-ceartais = tribunal
Manx (Gaelg)	mod = assembly, gathering, meeting

Etymology: from Old Norse mót (meeting, joint), from Proto-Germanic *mōtą (meeting) Proto-Indo-European *meh₂d- (to meet, approach, encounter) [source]. Words from the same roots include meet and moot (subject of discussion, arguable, debatable) in English, møde (meeting, encounter, conference) in Danish, and mót (meeting, gathering, assembly) in Icelandic [source].

Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	kynnull = collection, a gathering (of harvest, etc) kynullaw, cynull = to collect, gather, bring together, muster, assemble kinvllaud, cynullawd = a gathering, assembly cynulledic = collected, gathered, assembled, collective cynulleidua, cynulleitua, kynulleitua = congregation, audience, gathering, host
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cynnull [ˈkənɪɬ] = collection, a gathering cynullaf, cynullo = to collect, gather, bring together, muster, assemble cynulliad = assembly, gathering cynull(i)edig = collected, gathered, assembled, collective cynulleidfa = congregation, audience, gathering, host ymgynnull = to assemble
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	cuntell, contell = a gathering together, collection cuntell, cuntullys, cuntyllys, contellyes = to gather together, collect cuntellet = a congregation cuntellyans = a gathering together
Cornish (Kernewek)	kuntel = collection; to accumulate, collect, gather, pick; harvest kunteller, kuntellores = collector, picker kuntelles = assembly, congress, meeting kuntellyans = aggregation, congregation
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kuntuilh = to pick, picking kuntuilher = picker kuntuilherezh = picking

Etymology: from Proto-Brythonic *köβ̃- (with, together), from Proto-Celtic *kom- (with, together), from PIE*ḱóm (beside, near, by, with) + dull (method), from PIE *deyḱ (to show, point out) [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Habitual Customs

6th August 2024 By Simon

Words for habit, custom, virtue, moral(ity) and related things in Celtic languages.

Habitual Customs

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*banssus = custom, habit
Gaulish	bessu = customs, habits
Old Irish (Goídelc)	bés, béss, bǽs = custom, habit bésad = custom, customary practice bésgnae = custom, discipline, law
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	bés, bésse, bes = habit, custom, usual procedure, practice, manner, way, moral(s), good behaviour bésach = mannerly, well-behaviour bésaid = moralist (?) bésgnae = custom, usage, discipline, protocol béstae = moral
Irish (Gaeilge)	béas [bʲiːa̯sˠ/bʲeːsˠ] = habit, moral habit béasa = conduct, manners béasach = well-mannered, mannerly, polite béasaíocht = mannerliness, politness béascna = mode of conduct, custom, usage, culture béasmhúineadh = teaching of good manners
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	beus [beːs] = moral(s), virtue, conduct, demeanour beus-eòlas = ethics, moral philosophy beusach [beːsəx] = moral, virtuous, ethical, chaste, modest beusachd [beːsəxg] = good behaviour, moral rectitude, etiquette beusail [beːsal] = moral, virtuous, ethical, chaste, modest beusalachd [beːsəl̪ˠəxg] = ethics, moral behaviour beusanta [beːsən̪ˠdə] = ethical
Manx (Gaelg)	beaoil = moral, living beasagh = civil(ized), decorous, moral, obedient, pliable
Proto-Brythonic	*boɨs = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	moes = habit, wont, custom, tradition moeseidd, moesaidd = courteous, polite, well-bred moesgar, moes gar = courteous, polite, refined moessic = courteous, where courtesy is found moessauc, moessawc, moessoc = polite, well-bred, seemly, deferential moes(s)sawl = moral, ethical
Welsh (Cymraeg)	moes [moːɨ̯s / mɔi̯s] = established or usual behaviour, habit, wont, custom, tradition, social convention, courtesy, civility, manners, etiquette moesau, moesoedd = morals, moral principle(s) moesgar = courteous, polite, refined, well-mannered, civil moesog = polite, well-bred, seemly, deferential moesol = moral, ethical, high-principled anfoesol, di-foes = immoral
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	boas = custom, habit boaset = accustomed, trained, habitually
Breton (Brezhoneg)	boaz [ˈbwɑːs] = custom, habit boazamant = practice, tradition boazañ [ˈbwɑːzã] = to get used to boazet = accustomed, trained, habitually

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *bʰendʰ- (to bind, bond), or from *bʰeydʰ- (to compel, force, trust) [source].

Words from the same PIE root include bide, confide, defy, faith, federal and infidelity in English, besë (pledge, oath, promise, vow) in Albanian, beiða (to ask, request) in Icelandic, and бедя (bedjá – to accuse, slander, persuade) in Bulgarian [source].

Proto-Celtic	gnātos = known, recognised angnātos = unknown, obscure *gnināti = to recognise
Gaulish	gniiou = I recognise (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	gnáth [ɡnaːθ] = customary, usual gnáthach [ˈɡnaːθax] = customary, usual, constant, familiar, well-known gnáthaigid = to frequent, inhabit, practise ingnad = strange, unusual, wonderful, marvel, miracle, wonder
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	gnáth = customary, usual, familiar, well-known, custom, wont, usage gnáthaid = to practise, use, be accustomed to gnáthaigid = to be accustomed to, practise, frequent, inhabit gnátham = custom, wont, habit gnáthe = usualness, frequency gnáthmar = wonted, customary ingnad, ingnáth, ingnuth = strange, wonderful, remarkable, unusual, unfamiliar
Irish (Gaeilge)	gnáth [ɡn̪ˠɑː/ɡɾˠɑː/ɡɾˠæː] = custom, usage, customary thing, haunt, resort gnách [ɡn̪ˠɑ̃ːx/ɡɾˠɑːx] = customary, usual, common, ordinary gnáthaigh = to make a habit of, practise, frequent, haunt gnáthaíocht = commonness, frequency, usage, wont gnáthamh = usage, custom, procedure, routine
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	gnàth [grãː] = usual, common gnàthach [grãː.əx] = conventional, routine, habitual, orthodox gnàthachadh [grã.əxəɣ] = accustoming, practising, rehearsing, custom, practice, rehearsal gnàthachail [grãː.əxal] = customary gnàthachas [grãː.əxəs] = invariableness, constancy, convention, custom gnàthachd [grãː.əxg] = customariness
Proto-Brythonic	*gnọd = known, recognised
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gnaud, gnawd, gnawt, gnot = usual, customary, wont
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gnawd [ɡnau̯d] = usual, customary, wont, accustomed, natural, characteristic, known, frequent
Cornish (Kernewek)	gnas = character, nature, temper, quality gnasek = natural gnasen = trait
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	gnot = (?)

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *ǵn̥h₃tós (known, recognisable), from *ǵneh₃- (to know, recognise) [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include agnostic, canny, cognition, cunning, ignore, incognito, know, recognise in English, and noto (well-known, famous, notorious) in Italian [source].

Proto-Celtic	*kleto- = (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	clecht = custom, habit clechtaid = to practise, ply
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	clecht = custom, wont, habit clechtach = practised, experienced, customary clechtaid = to become accustomed to, frequent, consort with, practise, ply
Irish (Gaeilge)	cleacht [clʲaxt̪ˠ] = to perform habitually, to be, to become accustomed to, to practise cleachtach (ar, le) = accustomed (to) cleachtadh [ˈclʲaxt̪ˠə/ˈclʲaxt̪ˠu] = habit, wont, practice, experience, exercise; to practise cleachtas = practice cleachtóir = practitioner
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cleachd [klɛxg] = use, employ, accustom, get used to, habituate, practise cleachdach [klɛxgəx] = customary, habitual, usual cleachdadh [klɛxgəɣ] = using, use, convention, custom, habit cleachdaiche [klɛxgɪçə] = consumer, user cleachdail [klɛxgal] = customary, habitual, usual cleachdta [klɛxdə] = used to, accustomed to
Manx (Gaelg)	cliaghtey = habit, practice, rehearsal, usage, use; to rehearse, train, use, profess cliaghtagh = habitual, customary, conventional cliaghtaghey = to accustom, exercise, practise

Etymology: possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *kʷelh₁- (to turn, revolve around, dwell) [source].

Proto-Celtic	*ɸarebereti = to use
Old Irish (Goídelc)	arbeir [arˈbʲerʲ] = to live, use, employ, eat, reproach, subdue, express do·airbir = to bend, subdue, bow down, yield, surrender
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ar-beir, air-ber, arbeir = to live, eat, use, employ, plead, oppose, express, subdue, quell
Proto-Brythonic	*ėrβėrɨd, = to make use of, employ, take
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	arber = to use, make use (of), employ
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	aruer, arfer, arver = usage, practice, habit, custom, tradition arber, arueru, arver, arfer = to use, make use (of), employ arueredic, arferedig = usual, habitual, customary, familiar arverog, arferoc = usual, habitual, customary, familiar, common, ordinary arferol, arverol, aruerol = usual, habitual, customary, familiar, common, ordinary, normal, regular
Welsh (Cymraeg)	arfer [ˈarvɛr/ˈarvar] = usage, practice, habit, custom, tradition arferaf, arfer(u) = to use, make use (of), employ arferedig = usual, habitual, customary, familiar arferiad = habit, usage, practice, custom arferol = usual, habitual, customary, familiar, common, ordinary, normal, regular

Etymology: from the Proto-Celtic *ɸare- (for(e)-) and *bereti (to carry, bear, flow), from Proto-Indo-European *bʰéreti (to be carrying), from *bʰer- (to bear, carry) [source].

Words for To Carry / Flow in Celtic languages come from the same roots.