Swearing Oaths

13th August 202514th August 2025 By Simon

Today we’re looking at the words for oath, vow, (to) swear and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	lug = oath lugyom = oath, swearing
Old Irish (Goídelc)	luige = oath, swearing lugae = oath luigid = to swear
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	luige, lug, luga, lugae = oath, (act of) swearing lugach = given to swearing, assertive, contentious luigid, luigaid = to swear
Irish (Gaeilge)	luigh [l̪ˠɪɟ / l̪ˠiː] = to swear (literary) luighe = oath
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lùgh [l̪ˠuː] = swear! curse! lùghadh [l̪ˠuː.əɣ] = (act of) swearing, oath, (act of) cursing lùighe [l̪ˠuːjə] = (act of) swearing, oath, (act of) cursing
Manx (Gaelg)	loo [luː] = oath, swear(ing), affidavit looee = oath
Proto-Brythonic	*lluɣ = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llv, llw = (solemn) oath, vow, oath, swear word, curse, blasphemy
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llw [ɬuː] = (solemn) oath, vow, oath, swear word, curse, blasphemy
Cornish (Kernewek)	li = oath lia = to swear, take an oath
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	dilu = oath
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	le, lé = oath, blasphemy leanty = convent
Breton (Brezhoneg)	le [leː] = oath, swear, vow leañ [ˈleː.ã] = to swear, take an oath leandi [leˈãn.di] = convent

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *lewgʰ- (to announce, tell, publicly) [source]. Words from the same roots include lie in English, liegen (to lie, tell lies) in Dutch, lügen (to tell a lie, to lie) in German, ljuga (to lie, to tell an untruth) in Swedish, łgać (to lie, feign, simulate) in Polish [source].

Proto-Celtic	tungeti = to swear (an oath) writ-tungeti = to counter-swear
Gaulish	toncsiiontio = (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	tongaid = to swear fristoing = to forswear
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	tongaid, toṅga, tongu = to swear, take an oath
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	tuinge = oath
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	twng, twg = a swearing, oath tyngu = to swear (an oath) gurthtygho, gurhtuc, gvrthegho, gurthtug = to counter-swear
Welsh (Cymraeg)	twng, twnc = a swearing, oath tyngu = to swear (an oath) camdyngu = to swear falsely, forswear cytyngu = to swear together, take a mutal oath gwrthdyngu = to counter-swear
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	ty = an oath, imprecation
Cornish (Kernewek)	ti = oath, vow, swear tia = to swear, vow
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	toeaff, touet = to swear, curse
Breton (Brezhoneg)	tou [tu:] = oath touiñ [ˈtuː.ĩ] = to swear, curse

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *h₂lewgʰ- (to announce), or from PIE *th₂négti (to touch, grasp; to take), from *teh₂g- (to touch, take) [source].

Proto-Celtic	*mandu = mark, sign, spot
Old Irish (Goídelc)	mind [mʲin͈d] = crown, insignia, oath
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	mind, minn = crown, diadem, oath, vow
Irish (Gaeilge)	mionn = crown, diadem, oath mionnach = swearing, given to swearing mionnadóir = swearer mionnaigh = to swear mionnú = swearing, adjuration mórmhionnach = addicted to swearing
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	mionn [mjũːn̪ˠ] = oath, curse, (act of) cursing, insignia mionnaichte [mjun̪ʲɪçdʲə] = bound by oath, sworn, avowed mionnan [mjun̪ˠan] = (act of) swearing an oath, (act of) cursing, small curse mionnach [mjuːn̪ˠəx] = pertaining to or abounding in oaths or curses, swearing, sweary, cursing mionn [mjũːn̪ˠ] =
Manx (Gaelg)	mian = to wish mianey = to wish, desire, hanker, fancy, long, lust mynney = to swear, swear-word, imprecation, oath-book
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	mann = spot, speck, blemish, stain, mark
Welsh (Cymraeg)	man [man] = spot, speck, blemish, stain, mark mannig = spot, dot, particle. breve (in music)

Etymology: uncertain [source], possibly from Proto-Indo-European *mend- (physical defect, fault) [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	móit = vow
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	móit, móid = vow, oath, wish, desire
Irish (Gaeilge)	móid [mˠoːdʲ] = vow móidach = votary, votive móidghealladh = solemn promise, profession móidigh = to vow móidín = devotee
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	mòid [mɔːdʲ] = oath, solemn promise, swearing, vow mòideachadh [mɔːdʲəxəɣ] = (act of) swearing, vowing

Etymology: from Latin vōtum (promise, dedication, vow, will, desire, prayer), from voveō (to vow, promise, dedicate), from Proto-Italic *wogʷeō (to vow, promise, dedicate), from Proto-Indo-European *h₁wogʷʰéyeti, from *h₁wegʷʰ- (to promise, vow, praise) [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Geriafurch, TermOfis

First Things First

31st July 202531st July 2025 By Simon

Words for first, before, previous, and related things in Celtic languages.

first things first

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	kentus = first kentuslongos = early meal kentusamonyos, kintusamīnos, kintusamonis = beginning of summer, May kentusedom = first seat
Gaulish	cintus = first (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cét- [ˈkʲeː.d] = first cétaín [ˈkʲeː.dai̯nʲ] = Wednesday (“first fast”) cétmuinter = spouse, wife cétnae = first, same cétóir = first time, beginning
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cét- [kax / kex] = first, early, primary, former cétad = seat, couch cétaín [ˈkʲeː.dai̯nʲ] = Wednesday cétlongad = fasting
Irish (Gaeilge)	céad [ciːa̯d̪ˠ / ceːd̪ˠ] = first Céadaoin [ˈceːd̪ˠiːnʲ] = Wednesday céalacan = moring fast
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ciad [kʲiad] = first ciadaineach [kʲiədɪn̪ʲəx] = pertaining to Wednesday, falling on a Wednesday DiCiadain [dʲɪˈkʲiədɪn̪ʲ] = Wednesday
Manx (Gaelg)	kied = first, primary, senior chied = first, initial, primary kied chouyr = first aid Crean = Mercury, Wednesday
Proto-Brythonic	kɨnt = earlier, sooner, before, former, previous kɨntüheð = porch, entry, court (?) *kɨntühaβ̃in = beginning of summer, first month of summer, May (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cin, kin, kyn(n), cynn = before, previous to, preceding cynda(i)d = ancestor, forefather kynt, cynt = earlier, sooner, former(ly), previous(ly), before, quicker, faster, swifter, rather (than) kyn(n)hayaf, kynhaeaf, cynhaeaf = harvest(-time), autumn kantaf, kyntaf, kyntaw, kentaf = swiftest, quickest, fastest, fleetest, first, foremost, chief, principal cyntedd = porch, lobby, vestibule, entry, court, forecourt kintevin, kynteuin, kyntefin = beginning of summer, first month of summer, May, spring, summer kythlwng = fasting, hunger
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cyn [kɨ̞n / kɪn] = before, previous to, preceding cynt [kɨ̞nt / kɪnt] = earlier, sooner, former(ly), previous(ly), before, quicker, faster, swifter, rather (than) cyntaf = swiftest, quickest, fastest, fleetest, first, foremost, chief, principal cynhaeaf = harvest(-time), autumn cyntedd [ˈkəntɛð] = porch, lobby, vestibule, entry, court, forecourt cyntefin [kənˈtɛvɪn] = beginning of summer, first month of summer, May, spring, summer cythlwng = fasting, hunger
Old Cornish	kyniaf = harvest(-time), autumn
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	cyn, cen, ken = first, before (that) cens, kens = before, formerly, rather cenzhoha, kenzhoha = the morning cynsa, censa, kensa = the first, chief cyniaf, kyniaw, cidniadh, cidniaz = autumn, harvest, time (“before winter”)
Cornish (Kernewek)	kyns, kens = former, previous, sooner, earlier, formerly, rather, before kyns ena, kens ena = previously, before then kynsa, kensa = first, initial kynser(es) = apprentice kynserneth = apprenticeship kynsistorek = prehistoric
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	quent = before quentaff = first
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kent [ˈkɛ̃nt] = before, previously, rather, preferably, prevous, prior kantad = ancestor kantael = primitive, primary kantaenn = principle kantañ [ˈkẽn.tã] = first, main, next, soon kentannezer = pioneer, pathfinder kentanv = first name kentocʼh [ˈkẽntɔx] = rather, instead kerkent [ˈkɛrkɛnt] = immediately, as soon as

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kéntus, from *ken- (to arise, begin) [Source]. Words from the same roots possibly include begin, recent in English, beginnen (to begin, commence, start) in German, cenau (cub, pup, whelp, rascal) in Welsh, cana (cub, whelp) in Irish, szczenię (puppy, cub) in Polish, and reciente (recent) in Spanish [Source].
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Who?

11th July 2025 By Simon

Words for who and related things in Celtic languages.

Who?

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷei = who
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cía, ce, ci, cia = who? what? where? how? although, if cía airet? = how long? cía airm? = where? cía chruth? = how? cía méit? = how many? how much?
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cía, cia, cá = who? what? how? where? cia airm? = what place? where? cia eret? cia airet? = how long?
Irish (Gaeilge)	cé? [keː] = who? whom? cén? [ceːnˠ] = what? which? cén áit? = where? at what place? cén chaoi? = how? in what whay? cén dóigh? = how? in what way? cén fáth? = why? for what reason? cén uair? = when? at what time? cér(b)? = who is? cér(bh)? = who was?
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cò [koː] = who(m)? where? ge be cò = whoever, whosoever cia? [kʲa] = how? what? which? who? cia mheud? [kʲaˈviəd] = how many? cia ás? [kʲaˈas] = whence? where from? cia minig? = how often? cia fhada? [kʲaˈadə] = how long? cia airson? = why?
Manx (Gaelg)	quoi [kwəi] = who? whom? which, whichever, who quoi erbee = who(so)ever, whom(so)ever quoi s’lesh = whose quoi jeu? = which one?
Proto-Brythonic	*puɨ = who (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	pui = what
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pwy, puy = who(m), whose, what, which, how pwy … pynac = whichever, whatever
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pwy [puːɨ̯ / pʊi̯] = who(m), whose, what, which, how pwy bynnag = who(so)ever, whichever, what(so)ever pwy … bynnag = whichever, whatever pwyma, pwyna = what-d’you-call-him/her
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pyw, pu = who, whom, which pywpenag, pwy-penag, piwha bennac = whosoever
Cornish (Kernewek)	piw [piˑʊ] = who piw penag / pynag [piˑʊ] = whoever
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	piu = who
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	piu = who
Breton (Brezhoneg)	piv [ˈpiw] = who piv bennak = whoever piv din-me = thing, thingamajig, whatstheirface (a person whose name is unknown)

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kʷís (who, what, which, that) [source]. Words from the same root include how, whether and status quo in English, hoe (how) in Dutch, hver (every, each, everyone) in Danish, qui (who, whom, which, that) in French, chi (who, whom, whoever) in Italian, com (with, against, alongside, together) in Portuguese, and który (what, which, that, who) in Polish [source].

Gnawing Bites

20th June 2025 By Simon

Today we’re looking at the words for chew, gnaw, bite and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with an * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*knāyeti = to bite, chew
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cnaïd = to gnaw
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cnaïd, cnaídid = to gnaw away, consume, disperse cnaí(ded), cnaidedh = gnawing, wasting cnaí(te), cnaoite, cnaeite = wasted, corroded cnám, cnáma, cnámh = (act of) gnawing, wasting, laying waste (to), ravaging con-cnaí, cocnaid = to chew, masticate, gnaw (away)
Irish (Gaeilge)	cnaí = gnawing, corrosion (of body), wasing, decline cnaígh = to gnaw, corrode cogain [ˈkɔɡənʲ / ˈkaɡənʲ] = to chew, masticate, gnaw, grind, slur, mutter cogaint = mastication cogantach = chewing, masticatory cogantóir = chewer, masticator guma coganta = chewing gum
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cagainn [kagɪn̪ʲ] = to chew, gnaw, masticate cagnachail [kagnəxal] = chewy cagnadh [kagnəɣ] = chewing, gnawing, masticating, mastication caigneadh [kagʲn̪ʲəɣ] = chewing, gnawing, masticating, mastication
Manx (Gaelg)	caigney = to chew, file, gnaw, mumble, munch, rasp, chewing caignee = gnawing, chewing credjuagh = believer, disciple, believing, believable caigneyder = chewer, gnawer, rodent
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cno = a biting, gnawing, consuming, languishing cnofa, cnoua = biting, gnawing, gripes, ache, colic, remorse cnoi, knoyn, knoi = to bite, gnaw, chew, masticate, torment, worry
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cno = a biting, gnawing, consuming, languishing cnoaf, cnoi [knɔi̯] = to bite, gnaw, chew, masticate, torment, worry, fret, vex, gripe, ache, ruminate, meditate cno = a biting, gnawing, consuming, languishing cno(e)ad = bite, chew, gnawing, mastication cnoawdr = gnawer, biter cnofa = biting, gnawing, gripes, ache, colic, remorse cnofil = rodent
Cornish (Kernewek)	knias = to chew knivil = rodent
Breton (Brezhoneg)	chagiñ [ˈkreː.dĩ] = to chew chaok [ʃok] = chewing chaokat [ˈʃokːat] = to chew, eat, masticate chaoker = chewer, masticator, big eater chaokerezh = mastication

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kneh₂- (to bite, chew, scratch, scrape) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include Nut (groove, slit, slot) in German and knóti (to peel) in Lithuanian [source].

Proto-Celtic	brozdos, brasdu = point, tip
Old Irish (Goídelc)	brot [brod] = goad
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	brot, brud, brad = goad, spike brotad(h) = act of goading, urging brotchú = watchdog, bloodhound, herd-dog, mastiff
Irish (Gaeilge)	brod = goad broideadh = = to prod, nudge, bite
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	brod [brɔd] = goad, prickle, sting strong>brodadh [brodəɣ] = rousing, stirring, goading, poking, prompt
Manx (Gaelg)	brod = goad, jab, nudge, prick, spur, stimulus broddagh = jabbing, stab wound broddey = to goad, jab, nudge, poke
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	brath [braːθ] = a bite, biting brathu, brathv, brathy = to bite, sting, wound, pierce brathedig, brathedic = bitten, wounded, stabbed, pierced
Welsh (Cymraeg)	brath [braːθ] = a bite, biting, stinging, prick, scratch, wounding, piercing, stabbing, wound, injury brathu = to bite, sting, wound, pierce brathedig = bitten, wounded, stabbed, pierced brathgi = biting dog, dog given to snapping, surly man brath(i)ad = a bite, biting, sting, wounding brathiadol = biting, hurtful
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	brathcy = a mastiff, hound (“a biting dog”)
Cornish (Kernewek)	brath = bite bratha = to bite brathek = caustic

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *bʰresdʰh₁-, from *bʰers- (top, tip, point) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots possibly include barley, bristle and brush in English, barr (pine needles) in Icelandic, farine (flour, feed) in French, bara (bread) in Welsh, barr (tip, head, point, top, summit) in Irish, and Barsch (perch [fish]) in German [source].

Proto-Celtic	gramman, gremmen- = seizure, grasp
Old Irish (Goídelc)	greimm, graimm [ˈɡʲr͈ʲemʲ] = grasp, authority, power
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	greimm, graimm = grasp, authority, sway, power, seizure, hold, grasp, bond, obligation, duty, service, profit, use, advantage gremanach, greamanach = biting gremmaigid, greamaighid = to hold fast, cleave, stick, seize, grasp, obtain, secure
Irish (Gaeilge)	greim [ɟɾʲəimʲ / ɟɾʲɪmʲ] = to grip, grasp, hold
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	greim [grʲɤim =] = bit(e), morsel, clutch, grasp, grip, hold, catch, stitc, seizure, pneumonia greimeachadh [grʲeməxəɣ] = gripping, grasping, clutching, clinging, grappling greimean [grʲeman] = small bite, small morsel
Manx (Gaelg)	greim = bite, catch, clutch, grab, grapple, grasp, grip, hold, snatch greimmagh = clutching, grasping, gripping, snappy, sticky greimmey = to bite, catch, clutch, grab, grip, hold

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *gʰrebʰ- (to seize, grab, dig, rake) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots possibly include grab, grave, groove and grub in English, graven (to dig, search for information) in Dutch, graben (to dig, burrow) in German, and grabić (to rake, rob, plunder) in Polish [source].

Dutiful Laws

30th December 20246th February 2025 By Simon

Words for duty, debt, law, rule and related things in Celtic languages.

Scottish Parliament / Pàrlamaid na h-Alba / Scots Pairlament

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*dligeti = to be entitled to, be obligated to
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dligid = to deserve, merit, be entitled to
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dligid, dleagaid = to be entitled to, have a right to, be owed, deserve, merit
Irish (Gaeilge)	dligh [dʲlʲɪɟ/dʲlʲiː] = to be entitled to, have a right to, deserve, merit, be incumbent on, be liable to, ought to
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dligh [dli] = owe, be due dleas [dles] = deserve, merit, due dleasach [dlesəx] = deserving, meriting dleasadh [dlesəɣ] = (act of) deserving, meriting dleasannas [dlesən̪ˠəs] = obligation, duty dleasanta [dlesən̪ˠdə] = deserving, meriting dleasnach [dlesn̪ˠəx] = dutiful dleastanas [dlesdənəs] = obligation, duty
Manx (Gaelg)	toill = to deserve, will toillchin = to deserve, earn, merit, reward; derserving, worthy toillchinagh = deserving, meritorious toillchinys = desert, merit toillchyn = to deserve, merit toilliu = to deserve, earn, merit; deserving, worthy
Proto-Brythonic	*dɨlɣɨd = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	deleu, dyly, dylu = to be obliged to, ought, be indebted, behove, owe, be in debt, have a right to, claim, merit, deserve, posses, claim from
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dylu [ˈklɛðɨ̞v/ˈkleːðɪv] = to be obliged to, ought, be indebted, behove, owe, be in debt, have a right to, claim, merit, deserve, posses, claim from (other forms include: dylaf, dylÿaf, dlyaf, dylÿu, dlyu, dleu, deleu)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	dely, dylly = to owe, deserve
Cornish (Kernewek)	tyli = to owe, pay, reward tylva = checkout, till
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dleout = must
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dleout [ˈdleː.ut] = to have to, must, owe dleañ = to have to, must, owe; judicious

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *dʰlégʰ-ti/*dʰl̥gʰ-énti, from *dʰlegʰ- (to beat, strike) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots possibly include dolog (thing, object, affair, business, task, fate) in Hungarian, dług (debt, account payable) in Polish, долг (dolg – debt, duty, obligation) in Russian, and dlh (debt) in Slovak [source].

Proto-Celtic	*dligetom = duty, debt
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dliged, dligeth [ˈdʲlʲiɣʲeð] = law, principle, rule, theory, dictum dlecht = lawful dligthech = lawful, right
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dliged, dligeth, dleged = law, principle, rule, norm, dictum, reason, argument, reckoning, nature, condition, kind, manner dligedach = lawful dligemnas = lawful right dligthech = regular, right, lawful, law-abiding, rational, reasonable, just, righteous dligthe(m)nach, dligtheanuigh = lawgiver dligtheoir = lawyer, man of law
Irish (Gaeilge)	dlí [dʲlʲiː] = law, divine precept, scientific principle, litigation dlíodóir = lawyer dlíodóireacht = practice of law, practising law dlíthí = litigant dlíthíoch = litigious dlíthíocht = litigiousness dlíthiúil = legal, juridicial, lawful, litigious dlíthiúilacht = legality, lawfulness dleacht = due, lawful right, royalty, patent dleathach = lawful, legal, valud, genuine, just, proper dleathaíocht = legality, justice, propriety
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dlighe [dli.ə] = ordinance (in law), due dligheach [dli.əx] = lawful, legitimatem rightful, right, due, dutiful, just dligheachas [dli.əxəs] = lawful right, jurisdiction, validity dligheachd [dli.əxg] = legality, royalty (payment) dligheadh [dli.əɣ] = (act of) owing, being due, stipend dlighear [dli.ər] = lawyer, creditor dligheil [dli.al] = legitimate, lawful, rightful
Proto-Brythonic	*dlɨɣed = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	delehet, deleed, dylyet, dlyet, dylet = debt, due, claim, right, demand, oblitation, duty dylyedawc, dylyedauc, dylyedaỽc dyledawg = noble, privileged, dignified, illustrious, rightful dyledogaeth, dlyedogaeth = nobility, lordship, proprietorship dylyedus, dyledus = due, proper, meet, lawful, worthy, just, necessary, requisite, owing, in debt, indebted dyledwr = debtor, defaulter, trespasser
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dyled [ˈdəlɛd] = debt, due, claim, right, demand, oblitation, duty, service, heritage, estate, worth, privilege, sins, transgressions, trespasses [also written dylêd, dled, dylyed, dlyed] dyled(i)ach = trifling debts, dribbling debts dyledu = to owe, be due, debit, make due dyledog = indebted, in debt, due, noble, privileged, dignified, illustrious, debtor dyl(y)edus = due, proper, meet, lawful, worthy, just, necessary, requisite, owing, in debt, indebted, noble, privileged, dignified, reasonable, sensible, understanding dyledwr = debtor, defaulter, trespasser
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dle = due, owing dleat = moral duty, tax
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dle = due, owing, debt dlead = moral duty, tax dleatour = debtor dleapl = liable dleoniezh = ethics d(e)leour = debtor, creditor

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *dligeti (to owe, be indebted to) – see above [source].

Proto-Celtic	*ká(g)ni- = tribute, law
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cáin [kaːnʲ] = law, regulation, rule, fine, tax, tribute, legal due
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cáin, cain = law, regulation, rule, fine, tax, tribute
Irish (Gaeilge)	cáin [kɑːnʲ/kaːnʲ] = law, regulation, rule, due, tribute, fine, penalty, impost, tax cáinaisnéis = budget cáinaisnéiseach = budgetary
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	càin [kaːn̪ʲ] = duty, tariff, tribute, fine; body of laws (archaic) càin-aisneis = budget càineach, càinear, càiniche = tax/excise collector, tax gatherer càineachadh [kaːn̪ʲəxəɣ] = (act of) imposing a tax

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *keh₂/₃ǵ-n- [source]. Words from the same root may include kázeň (discipline) in Czech, kaźń (execution, torture, torment) in Polish, and kázeň (sermon, discipline) in Slovak [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	cís = tax, tribute
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cís, cis, cíos = tax, tribute, cess, rent císach = receiving or exacting tribute císaige = tributary, rent-payer císugud = paying tribute
Irish (Gaeilge)	cíos [ciːsˠ] = rent, price; tax tribute (historical) cíosach = rent-paying, tributary cíosaí = rent-payer cíosaigh = to rent, pay rent for, compensate for cíoscháin = tribute cíoscheannach = hire-purchase
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cìos [kʲiəs] = tribute, tax cìs [kʲiːʃ] = tax, levy cìsachadh [kʲiːʃəxəɣ] = taxing, taxation cìsachas [kʲiːʃəxəs] = taxation cìseadair [kʲiːʃədɪrʲ] = exciseman cìsear [kʲiːʃər] = tax/excise collector, tax gatherer
Manx (Gaelg)	keesh = custom, duty, tax, toll, tribute, contribution keeshagh = assessable, taxable, tributary keeshyn = taxation, taxes, tribute, dues

Etymology: from Latin cēnsus (census, register, rich gifts, presents, wealth), from cēnseō from Proto-Italic *kensēō (to give an opinion), from *kensējō, from Proto-Indo-European *ḱenséh₁-ye-ti, from *ḱens- (to announce, proclaim, put in order). Words from the same roots may include census in English, censo (census, wealth) in Italian, Zins (interest, tribute) in German, and czynsz (rent) in Polish [source].

Proto-Celtic	rextus = rule, law kom-rextus = law (?)
Celtiberian	Retukeno = personal name
Gaulish	Rextugenos = personal name
Old Irish (Goídelc)	recht, rect [r͈ʲext] = law rechtach = law-giving rechtaid = lawgiver rechtaide = legal rechtaigid = to legislate rechtaire = steward rechtas = stewardship rechtge = government rechtmar = lawful
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	recht, rect, reacht = law, authority, rule, right, lawfulness rechtach = just, equitable, law-giving rechtaid, rechtaidh = judge, lawgiver rechtaide = legal, pertaining to the law, lawful rechtaigid = to legislate rechtaire, rechtorairge = steward, baliff, administrator, judge (?) rechtas, rechtus, rechtcus = authority, administration, stewardship rechtge, rechtga = government, authority, rule, regin rechtmar = lawful, legitimate
Irish (Gaeilge)	reacht [ɾˠaxt̪ˠ] = law, statute, accepted rule reachtach = law-giving, legislative reachtaigh = to legislate, enact, decree reachtaíocht = legislation reachtaire = controller, administrator, steward, Rector, auditor, master of ceremonies reachtas = administration, stewardship reachtmhar = lawful, legitimate reachtóir = lawgiver, legislator reachtúil = statutory, statute
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	reachd [r̪ˠɛxg] = decree, statue, edict reachdach [r̪ˠɛxgəx] = compulsory reachdachadh [r̪ˠɛxgəxəɣ] = (act of) legislating, law-making, legislature reachdadair [r̪ˠɛxgədɪrʲ] = lawmaker, legislator reachdadaireachd [r̪ˠɛxgədɪrʲəxg] = legislature reachdail [r̪ˠɛxgdal] = legislative, statutory reachdas [r̪ˠɛxgəs] = legislation
Proto-Brythonic	rreiθ = rule, law kuβ̃reiθ = law (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	reyth, reith, rhaith = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict cyfreith, kiureith, kefreyth [ˈkəvrai̯θ] = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhaith [r̥ai̯θ] = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict rhaithgor = jury cyfraith [ˈkəvrai̯θ] = law, legislation, statute, custom, usage, jurisprudence
Cornish (Kernewek)	reyth = regular, right, religious law reythennek, reythednek = statutory reythen = statute reythe = to authorise, codify, empower, entitle, qualify reythes = authorised, empowered, enacted, entitled, qualified reythyans = enactment, jurispridence, lawmaking, legislation
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	reith = law
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	rez, reiz = law rezder = law
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reizh = right, just, correct, order, normal reizhad = regular reizhadenn = rectification, corrected reizhadur = adjustment reizhan = to correct, adapt, regular, initiate reizhded = correctness, rectitude, normality reizhder = regularity reizhegezh = legitimacy reizhek = legitimate reizhekaat = to legitimize reizhennan = to regulate reizhus = legal

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₃reǵ- (to straighten, to righten) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include rail, rank, realm, regime, rule and regulation in English, rę́žti (to stretch) in Lithuanian, règle (rule, regulation) in French, and regla (rule, ruler) in Spanish [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	ríagal, ríagul = rule
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ríagal, riagoil, riaguil = rule, authority
Irish (Gaeilge)	riail [ɾˠiəlʲ] = rule, regulation, principle, sway, authority, order rialachán = regulation rialúchán = regulation, control
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	riaghail [r̪ˠiə.al] = rule, govern, administer riaghailt [r̪ˠiə.əldʲ] = rule, regulation, government riaghailteach [r̪ˠiə.əl̪ˠdʲəx] = regular, according to rule, orderly riaghailteachadh [r̪ˠiə.aldʲəxəɣ] = (act of) formulating, regulating, adjusting, adjustment riaghailteachas [r̪ˠiə.aldʲəxəs] = regulatory riaghailteachd = regularity, moderation riaghailtear [r̪ˠiə.aldʲər] = regulator riaghailtearachd [r̪ˠiə.aldʲərəxg] = administration riaghal [r̪ˠiə.əl̪ˠ] = rule
Manx (Gaelg)	reill = code, dominion, governance, policy, principle, reign; to charge, govern, order, regulate, rule reilley = to regulate, reign, rule; ruling reilleyder = governor, regulator, ruler, straight edge reilt = normal, to rule reiltagh = director, ordinal, president, rector, ruler; decisive, ruling, regular reiltys = governance, rule, kingdom, dominion, government
Proto-Brythonic	*rreɣol = rule (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ryol, reol, rhwol = rule, regulation, procedure, order, custom, pattern, government, dominion rhyolaeth, reolaeth = rule, control, management, authority, discipline rwyoli, reoli, ryoli, rhywoli = to rule, control, direct, govern roliad = rule, control, government ryolus, reolus, rheolus, rreolys = regular, orderly, disciplined, moderate, consant
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rheol [ˈr̥eː.ɔl] = rule, regulation, procedure, order, custom, pattern, government, dominion rheol(i)aeth = rule, control, management, authority, discipline rheoli = to rule, control, direct, govern rheolaidd = regular, regulated, orderly rheoliad = rule, control, government rheolus = regular, orderly, disciplined, moderate, consant
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	reol, rowl, rovle = rule, government rowler = ruler, governor
Cornish (Kernewek)	rewl, rowl = regulation, rule rewlya, rowlya = to control, regulate, rule rewlyades, rowlyades = ruler (f) rewlyas, rowlyas = ruler (m) rewlys = regular
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	regul = rule, regulation
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	reul, reol, reoll = rule, regulation reulenn = rule reulennaff = to regulate
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reol = rule, principle, regime reolennadur = regulation reolennan = to regulate reoliadur = regulation reoliata = to regulate reoliek = regular reolius = regulatory

Etymology: from Latin rēgula (rule, bar, ruler), from regō (I rule, govern, direct, guide, steer, control), from Proto-Italic *regō, from Proto-Indo-European *h₃réǵeti (to be straightening, to be setting upright), from *h₃reǵ- (to straighten, to righten) – see above [source].

Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lagh [l̪ˠɤɣ] = law laghachd [l̪ˠɤɣəxg] = legislation laghadh [l̪ˠɤɣəɣ] = legalising, legalisation laghaiche [l̪ˠɤɣɪçə] = lawyer, solicitor laghaichte [l̪ˠɤɣɪçdʲə] = legalised laghail [l̪ˠɤɣal] = legal, lawful, litigious, argumentative laghaileachd [l̪ˠɤɣaləxg] = lawfulness, legality
Manx (Gaelg)	leigh = enactment, law, respect leighagh = legal, litigious leighder = lawyer, advocate, attorney, barrister, council leighoil = lawful, legal, legislative, legitimate

Etymology: from English law, or Middle English lawe/laȝe (law, regulation, morality), or Old English lagu (law, rule, right), all of which come from Old Norse lǫg (law, rule, right), from Proto-Germanic *lagą (situation, law, a settled amount), from Proto-Indo-European *legʰ- (to lie [down]). The English words lie and lay come from the same roots [source].

Teary Drops

30th October 2024 By Simon

Words for tear, drop and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	dakrū / dakrom = tear, drop (of liquid)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dér, dǽr = tear, teardrop, drop
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dér, déor, deór = tear, drop dérach, derach = tearful, sad, lugubrious derchoínuid, derchoiniud (verbnoun) = despair, dejection, lamentation derchoíntech, dérchaintech (adjective) = despairing, tearful, sorrowful dérfadach = shedding of tears, weeping
Irish (Gaeilge)	deoir [dʲoːɾʲ/dʲɔːɾʲ] = tear(-drop), drop deoirfhliuch = tear-stained deoirghás = tear-gas deoirghinteach = lachrymatory deoircín = little drop, anecdote deoiríneacht = shedding tears, being tearfully sentimental, tearfulness, maudliness deorach = tearful, lachrymal deordradh = (act of) dripping deoraíl = (act of) weeping
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	deòr [dʲɔːr] = drop (of liquid), tear deur [dʲiər] = drop (of liquid), tear, small amount of liquid deurach [dʲiərəx] = tearful, weeping deuran [dʲiəran] = little drop, wee drop, wee tincture
Manx (Gaelg)	jeir/jëir = tear, teardrop, spot, lachrymal, lachrymatory jeir-phianaghey = to agonize jeiragh = tearful, lachrymal, mournful jeirnys = lamentation, weeping
Proto-Brythonic	*dėgr = tear (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	deigir, deigyr, deigrev = tear, teardrop, drop
Welsh (Cymraeg)	deigryn, deigr [ˈdei̯ɡrɨ̞n / ˈdei̯ɡrɪn] = tear, teardrop, drop, raindrop deigryniad = a distilling, dripping, trickling deigrynnu = to drip, trickle, distil, exude, ooze, shed tears, drizzle deigrynnol = apt to shed tears, lachrymose, tearful
Old Cornish	dacr-(lon) = tear
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	dagren = a small drop, a tear
Cornish (Kernewek)	dagren [daːr / dæːr] = drop, tear dagrewi = to shed tears, weep derw = oak trees
Old Breton	dacrlon = tear, teardrop
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dar(rou) = tear(s), teardrop(s)
Breton (Brezhoneg)	daer [dɛːr] = tear, teardrop daeraouus = tearful daeraouiñ, daerin = to cry, be tearful daererezh = tearing

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European dáḱru (tear). Words from the same root include δάκρυ (dákry – tear) in Greek, tear and lacrimal/lachrymal (relating to tears, tearful) in English, tår (tear, drop) in Swedish, traan (tear, fish oil) in Dutch, Träne (tear) in German, lágrima (tear, teardrop) in Spanish, and zacchera (mud splash) in Italian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	bráen = rain, moisture, drop, precipitation
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	bráen, bróin, bróen = rain, moisture, drop(s) bráenach, braonach = shedding drops, wet, moist, well-watered bráenaid = to wet, sprinkle, rain bráenán = drops, shower bráenfadach = foaming (of a waterfall) bráengal = shower, sprinkling
Irish (Gaeilge)	braon [bˠɾˠeːn̪ˠ / bˠɾˠiːnˠ] = (single) drop, gathering, pus braonach = dripping, misty, wet, tearful braonaíl = dripping, drops braonán = droplet
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	braon [brɯːn] = drop, drizzle braonach [brɯːnəx] = drizzly, dewy braonadh [brɯːnəɣ] = (act of) drizzling braonan [brɯːnan] = small drop (of liquid), dram
Manx (Gaelg)	brey = drop

Etymology: unknown. Possibly related to Ancient Greek βρέχω (brékhō – I send rain), Latin rigo (I water, moisten), and English rain [source].

Proto-Celtic	*bandyo- = drop
Old Irish (Goídelc)	banne = drop, pustule bannán = small drop, droplet
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	bannae, bainne, banne = drop, pustule, milk
Irish (Gaeilge)	bainne [ˈbˠaɲə / ˈbˠan̠ʲə] = milk bainniúil = milky, milk-yielding bainniúilacht = milkiness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	bainne = milk boinne [bɔn̪ʲə] = drop, small quantity, liquid measure boinneag [bɔn̪ʲag] = droplet, little/small drop, (alcoholic) drink boinnean [bɔn̪ʲan] = droplet, wee drop
Manx (Gaelg)	bainney [banʲə] = milk
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ban = drop (?)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	ban, banna, banné = drop, a jot, the smallest portion of anything
Cornish (Kernewek)	banna = bit, drop
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	banne, bannhe, bannech = drop, droplet
Breton (Brezhoneg)	banne [ˈbã.nːe] = drop, droplet, glass banneata = to drink shots

Etymology: uncertain. Possibly related to French bain (bath) in French, baño (bath, bathroom, toilet), bagno (bath, to swin, bathe, bathroom) in Italian, and bania (jug, can, container, churn) in Polish [source].

Seeds

4th July 2024 By Simon

Words for seed and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*sīlom = seed
Old Irish (Goídelc)	síl [sʲiːl] = seed, cause, origin, semen, race, progency, descendants, offspring, breed
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	síl = seed, race, progency, descendants, offspring, breed, sílach = seed sílaid = to sow spread, breed, sower sílaige = disseminator, one who propagates sílaigthid = sower sílem = sower sílne = seed, sperm
Irish (Gaeilge)	síol [ʃiː(ə)l̪ˠ] = seed, semem, sperm, offspring, progeny síolach = seedy síoladóir = seedsman, sower, disseminator síoladóireacht = (act of) seeding, sowing síoladaí = disseminator, propagator síolaicme = race, breed síolaigh = to seed, sow, disseminate, spread
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sìol [ʃiəl̪ˠ] = seed, sperm, descendants, progency, line, lineage, increase sìolach [ʃiə̪ˠəx] = breed, brood, offspring sìolachadh [ʃiəl̪ˠəxəɣ] = (act of) sowing seed, reproducing, propagating, breeding sìoladair [ʃiəl̪ˠədɪrʲ] = seedsman, sower sìolag [ʃiəl̪ˠag] = seedling, strainer sìolaiche [ʃiəl̪ɪç] = propagator
Manx (Gaelg)	sheel = seed, sperm, sheelag = seedling sheelagh = seedy, fruitful, seminal sheeleyder = seedsman, distiller, dribbler, refiner sheelraghey = to breed, propagate, breeding
Proto-Brythonic	*hil = race, lineage
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	hil = seed, issue, offspring, progeny, descendents hiliad = producing, generation, propagation hylyo, hilyo = to bring forth, breed, beget
Welsh (Cymraeg)	hil [hiːl] = seed, issue, offspring, progeny, descendents, posterity, stock, lineage, race hiliad = producing, generation, propagation, procreation, progency, lineage, offspring hiliaeth = generation, progeny, lineage hilio = to bring forth, breed, beget, propagate, increase, populate hiliog = prolific, fruitful, fecund, fertile, pregrant hiliogaeth = issue, offspring, seed, breed, race, posterity, descendants, lingeage hiliwr, hilydd = racist
Cornish (Kernewek)	hil = ethnicity, race hilegydh(es) = racist hilgasieth = racism
Breton (Brezhoneg)	hil = seed, posterity hilian, hiliañ = to procreate

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *seh₁- (to sow, plant, impress, insert) [source].

Words from the same PIE root include earn, season, seed, seminar and sow in English, säen (to sow) in German, siać (to spread, leave smth and forgot its location) in Polish, and sēt (to sow) in Latvian [source].

Proto-Celtic	*satos = seed
Proto-Brythonic	*had = seed
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	hat, had = seeds hadv, hadu = to bring forth or produce seed
Welsh (Cymraeg)	had [haːd] = seeds, origin, source, bit, mite hadaf, hadu = to bring forth or produce seed, grow seed, multiply, become fruitful, run to seed, sow, propagate hadaidd = having seed, seedy, running to seed hadblanhigyn = seedling hadfa = seed-plot, nursery-garden hadle = seed-plot, nursery, seminary, school
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	has, hâs = seed
Cornish (Kernewek)	hasa = to sow hasek = fruitful has, hasen = seed, sperm haslet = contraceptive haslettyans = contraception
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	att = seed
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	hat = seed, grains, pips hadaff, hadet, hada = to sow
Breton (Brezhoneg)	had = seed, spawn, offspring hadeg = seeding hader = sower haderezh = sowing hadañ = to sow

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *seh₁- (to sow, plant, impress, insert) [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

Mixed & Confused

7th June 202430th March 2025 By Simon

In this post we’re getting mixed up and confused about words for drunk and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	miskos = mixture, confusion miskati = to mix, confuse kom-miskos = mixture, confusion kommiskati = ?
Old Irish (Goídelc)	mesc [mʲesk] = drunk, intoxicated mescae [ˈmʲeskɘ] = drunkenness, intoxication mescaid = to confuse mesctha = confused, intoxicated con·mesca [konˈmʲeska] = to mix together
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	mesc(c) = drunk, intoxicated, mixed, confused, muddled, confusion mescae = drunkenness, intoxication, daze, bewilderment, excitment mescaid = to mix, bewilder, confuse, confound mesctha = confused, intoxicated, mixed, variegated con-mesca = to mix together, conmingle, join, unite
Irish (Gaeilge)	measc [mʲasˠk] = jumble, confusion, to mix (up), blend, stir meascadh = (ad)mixture, confusion meascán = mass, lump, mixture, jumble, muddle meascthóir = mixer, stirrer meisce [ˈmʲɛʃcɪ / ˈmʲɪʃcɪ] = drunkenness, intoxication, daze, bewilderment ar meisce = drunk, intoxicated meisceoir = drunkard meisceoireacht = drunkenness, inebriety meisciúil = intoxicating, drunken, addicted to drinking cumaisc = to mix together, blend, combine, compound, cohabit
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	measg [mesg] = mix, stir, mingle am measg [ə mesg] = amongst, among measgach [mesgəx] = sociable, gregarious, promiscuous measgachadh [mesgəxəɣ] = mixing, mixure, combining measgadair = mixer measgadh [mesgəɣ] = mixing, stirring, mingling, mixture misg [miʃgʲ] = drunkenness, inebriation, insobriety air misg = drunk misgeach [miʃgʲəx] = heady, drunk, intoxicated misgear [miʃgʲər] = drunkard, tippler coimeasg [kɔiməsg] = combine, merge, blend, mix coimeasgadh [kɔməsgəɣ] = combining, combination, merging, merger, blending
Manx (Gaelg)	mastey = amid(st), among(st), mingled, within, mixture mestey = compound, mixture, jumble; to confuse, mix, mingle, mash, shuffle, stir mestey-vestey = concoction, melee, mix up meshtey [ˈmeʃtə] = inebriety er meshtey = drunk, inebriated, intoxicated meshtallagh = drunk(ard), boozer, inebriate meshtallaght = promiscuity, drunkenness meshtallys, meshtelllys, meshtyrys = drunkenness, inebriation, intoxication covestey = to mix, mingle, merge covestit = mixed, mingled, blended
Proto-Brythonic	mɨsk = amid, amidst mɨskad [mɨˈsˑkaːd] = to blend, mix, confuse kɨm-mɨsk = mixed, confused (?) kummɨskad = to mingle, confuse, mix
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	mysc = mixing, mixture, confusion, mixed, confused mysci, mysgi = turmoil, tumult cymysc, kymysc, kymmysc, kymysg = mixed, mingled, blended, compound, mixture cymyscu, kemescu, kymysgu, kymyscu = to mix, mixed, blend, compound cymysced, cymmyscedd = mixture, compound, jumble ymysg, ym mysc = among, between
Welsh (Cymraeg)	mysg [mɨːsk / mɪsk] = mixing, mixture, confusion, mixed, confused, midst mysgaf, mysgu = to undo, untie, unpick, unravel, disentangle, loosen, mix, mingle, jumble mysgi = turmoil, tumult cymysg [ˈkʰəmɨ̞sk / ˈkʰəmɪsk] = mixed, mingled, blended, compound, mixture cymysgaf, cymysg(u) = to mix, mixed, blend, compound ymysg = among, between, in the midst of
Old Cornish	commisc = mixed
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	mysc, mŷsk = midst, middle cemescys, kemeskis, kemeskys = mixture cemyscy, kemyskys, cymyscys, kemyskis = to mingle, mix
Cornish (Kernewek)	mysk, mesk = midst myska, meska = to blend, involve, mingle myskas, myskii = mongrel kemmysk = mix kemyska = to mix, jumble, mingle kemyskans = mixture kemyskedh = hybrid kemyskell = mixer (machine)
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	mesc = mixture, chaos, disorder mescaff, meskaff = to mix, blend, stir quemesq [mɛ(z)w] = mixed, complex, confusion quemesq(a) = to mix, merge
Breton (Brezhoneg)	mesk [mesk] = mixture, chaos, disorder meskaj [ˈmes.kaʃ] = mixure meskañ [ˈmeskã] = to mix, blend, stir meskata [ˈmeskat:a] = mixer kemmesk [mɛ(z)w] = mixed, complex, confusion kemmeskad = composite kemmeskañ = to mix, merge

Etymology: from PIE *miḱsḱéti (to mix), from *meyḱ- (to mix) [source].

Words from the same roots include mash, meddle, medley, melee, miscellaneous, mix and promiscuous in English, mêler (to mix, meddle in, get mixed up in, shuffle) in French, mischen (to mix, shuffle) in German, and miesić (to knead) in Polish [source].

For words for drunk and related things in Brythonic languages, see the Celtiadur post Honey Wine.

Honey Wine

4th June 202430th March 2025 By Simon

Words for mead, wine and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	medu = mead, wine, alcoholic drink medwos = drunk
Celtiberian	Mezu-kenos = personal name “mead-born”
Gaulish	medu = mead Medu-genos = personal name “mead-born”
Primitive Irish	medu = mead
Primitive Irish	ᚋᚓᚇᚒ (medu) = mead ᚋᚓᚇᚇᚑᚌᚓᚅᚔ (meddogeni) = personal name “mead-born” ᚋᚓᚇᚃᚃᚔ (medvvi) = personal name “meady”
Old Irish (Goídelc)	mid [mʲið] = mead medb = strong, intoxicating (liquor) Medb = Maeve (personal name) Midgen = personal name “mead-born”
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	mid, midh = mead medb = strong, intoxicating (liquor) Medb [mʲeðβ / mʲɛɣβ] = Maeve (personal name)
Irish (Gaeilge)	meá [mʲæh / mʲa(h)] = mead Méabh [mʲeːvˠ / mʲeːw / mʲeːwə] = Maeve (personal name)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	meadh [mjɤɣ] = mead meadhach = fuddled with mead, like mead, abounding in mead Meadhbh [mjɤːv] = Maeve (personal name)
Manx (Gaelg)	meddagh = mead-maker
Proto-Brythonic	*með [mɛːð] = mead
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	med = mead
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	met, med = mead meddawt, meddavt, meddwdod = drunkenness, inebriation, intoxication meddfaeth, metveith, meduaeth, medweith = nourished on mead, having feastedon mead, mead-feast medgell, meddgell = mead-cellar, drink-cellar met kirn, medgyrn, metgyrn, meddgyrn = mead-horn, drinking-horn metv, medw, meddw = drunk medwyt, medwi, meddwi [ˈmɛðwi] = to get drunk
Welsh (Cymraeg)	medd [meːð] = mead meddaidd = like mead, sweet medd-dod, meddwdod = drunkenness, inebriation, intoxication meddfaeth = luxurious, soft, gentle, delicate, pampered, effeminate meddw [ˈmɛðu] = drunk, intoxicated, fuddled, tipsy meddwi [ˈmɛðwi] = to be(come) drunk or tipsy, to be intoxicated or inebriated, to make drunky
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	medh, medu, meddou = mead medhas = drunkenness, intoxication medho = drunken, intoxicated
Cornish (Kernewek)	medh = mead, hydromel medhow = drunk, intoxicated medhwenep = drunkenness, intoxication medhwi = to intoxicate, make drunk medhwynsi = drunkenness
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	medot = mead
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	mez = mead
Breton (Brezhoneg)	mez [meː(s)] = mead mezv [mɛ(z)w] = drunk, wobbly (furniture) mezventi = alcoholism mezvier = drunkard mezvierezh = drunkenness mezviñ [ˈmɛ(z)vĩ] = to get drunk mezvus [ˈmɛ(z)vys] = intoxicating, heady

Etymology: from PIE *médʰu (honey, honey wine, mead), possibly related to Proto-Semitic *mataḳ- (sweet) [source].

Words from the same roots include mead in English, mead in English, mjöður (mead) in Icelandic, медведь [mʲɪdˈvʲetʲ] (bear, large clumsy person, lit. “honey eater”) in Russian, mesi (nectar) in Finnish, and possibly 蜜 (mì / mitsu – honey) in Chinese and Japanese and 밀 (mil – beeswax, honey) in Korean [source].

Proto-Celtic	*wīnom = wine
Leptonic	𐌖𐌉𐌍𐌏𐌌 (uinom) = wine
Old Irish (Goídelc)	fín = wine fín acat = vinegar
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	fín = wine fínán = cheap wine fínda = pertaining to wine fínmar = having abundance of wine fíntan = vineyard
Irish (Gaeilge)	fíon [fʲiːn̪ˠ] = wine fíonchaor = grape fíoncheannaí = wine merchant, vintner fíonda = vinous, pertaining to wine fíondaite = wine-coloured fíonghort [ˈfʲiːnˠˌɣɔɾˠtˠ] = vineyard fíonmhar = rich in wine, vinous fíonsaothrú = viticulture
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	fìon [fiən] = wine fìon-chaor [fiən xɯːr] = grape fìon-chrann = grapevine fìon-fhoghar = wine harvest, vintage fìon-geur = vinegar fìon-lios = vineyard fìonadair = wine-maker
Manx (Gaelg)	feeyn = wine feeyney = of wine, vinous feeyneyder = wine-maker, vintner feeyneydys = viticulture berrish-feeyney = grape feeyn geayr = vinegar fouyr feeyney = vintage garey feeyney = vineyard
Proto-Brythonic	*gwin = wine
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	guin = wine
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gvin, guin, gwin = wine gwinblas = mansion where wine is dispensed in abundance gwindeveirn = wine-tavern gwindy, gwin-dŷ = wine-house, wine-tavern, wine-cellar, banqueting house guinegyr, gwinegyr = vinegar guinlann, gwinllan(n) = vineyard, vine
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gwin [ɡwiːn] = wine, fermented liquor made from the juice of fruits (apples, elderberries, rhubarb, gooseberries, etc), like wine, pleasant, sweet, fine, excellent gwinbren = vine gwindy = wine-house, wine-tavern, wine-cellar, banqueting house gwinegr = vinegar gwinllan = vineyard, vine, copse, grove, wood, plantation gwinwr, gwinydd = vintner, vine-grower, vine-dresser, vineyard owner
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	gwin, guin = wine gwinbren, guinbren = vine
Cornish (Kernewek)	gwin [ɡwiːn] = wine gwinbren = vine gwinlan = vineyard gwinyer = winemaker
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	guin = wine guiniin = vines
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	guin, guyn = wine guiny, guyni = vines guynieyer = vineyard
Breton (Brezhoneg)	gwin [ɡwĩːn / ɡɥĩːn] = wine gwinegr [ɡwĩnˈɛk(r)] = vinegar gwini [ˈɡɥĩːni] = vines gwinieg [ɡɥĩ.ˈniː.ɛk] = vineyard gwinier [ɡwĩ.ˈniː.ɛr / ɡɥĩ.ˈniː.ɛr] = winemaker gwinioniezh [ɡɥĩ.nɔ̃ˈniː.ɛs] = oenology

Etymology: from Latin vīnum (wine, grapes, grapevine), from Proto-Italic *wīnom (wine), from Proto-Indo-European *wóyh₁nom (wine, vine). The Welsh and Cornish words come from Latin via Proto-Celtic, the Breton and Goidelic words were borrowed direct from Latin, and the Leptonic word comes direct from Proto-Italic [source].

Words from the same roots include wine, vine, vinegar and oenology (the scientific study of wines and winemaking) in English, wijn (wine) in Dutch, vino (wine) in Italian, wino (wine) in Polish, and possibly ወይን (wäyn – grape) in Amharic [source].

Axes and Hatchets

7th December 2023 By Simon

In this post we’re looking at the words for axe and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*tāxslo- = axe
Old Irish (Goídelc)	tál = adze
Middle Irish (Gaoidhleag)	tál = adze
Irish (Gaeilge)	tál [t̪ˠɑːlˠ/t̪ˠæːlˠ] = adze
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	tàl [taːl̪ˠ] = adze tàl-fuinn = hoe
Manx (Gaelg)	taal = adze

An adze cutting tool that has a curved blade set at a right angle to the handle and is used in shaping wood. [source].

Etymology possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *tetḱ-(dʰ)lo-, from *teḱ- (to sire, beget) [source]. Words from the same roots include architect, technical, text and textile in English, цясла́ [t͡sʲasˈɫa] (adze) in Belausian, тесло [tʲɪsˈɫo] (adze) in Russian, and teslă (adze) in Romanian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	túag = axe, hatchet
Middle Irish (Gaoidhleag)	túag = axe, hatchet túagaid = to hew, chop, strike with an axe túagrótae = roadway cleared with an axe
Irish (Gaeilge)	tua [t̪ˠuə] = axe, hatchet tuadóir = axe-man, hewer, chopper tuadóireacht = (act of) hewing, shaping, chopping tuaigh = to chop (with an axe)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	tuagh [tuəɣ] = axe tuaghadair = axeman, axe-wielder
Manx (Gaelg)	teigh = axe, chopper, hatchet

Etymology possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *(s)tewk- (to push, press, strike, beat, pierce), from *(s)tew- (to push, hit) [source]. Words from the same roots include tkát (to weave) in Czech, tkać (to weave, stick, tuck) in Polish, and тъка [tɐˈkɤ] (to spin, plait, entwine, weave) in Bulgarian [source], and words for hole & hollow in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic	*biyatlis = (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	biáil [ˈbʲi.aːlʲ] = axe, hatchet
Middle Irish (Gaoidhleag)	bíail, biáil = axe, hatchet, battle-axe
Irish (Gaeilge)	biail [bʲiəlʲ] = hatchet
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	biail = axe, hatchet (archaic)
Old Welsh	bahell = axe
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	buyall, bwell, bwyeill = axe bwyellic = small axe, hatchet bwyallawt = axe stroke bwiallawc = bearing an axe, armed with an axe; like an axe
Welsh (Cymraeg)	bwyall, bwyell, bwell = axe, battle-axe bwyellan, bwyellig = small axe, hatchet bwyellangaib = pickaxe, hoe bwyellod, bwyallod = stroke or cut with an axe, axe stroke bwyellog, bwyallog = bearing an axe, armed with an axe; like an axe bwyellwr = woodman
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	biail, boell, bool = axe, hatchet
Cornish (Kernewek)	bool = axe, chopper, hachet bolik = (small) axe, chopper, hachet
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	bouhazl, bouchazl, bouchal, boc’hal = axe
Breton (Brezhoneg)	bouc’hal [ˈbuː.ɣal] = axe, hammered bouc’halig = hatchet

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *bināti (to strike, hit, beat) from the Proto-Indo-European *bʰi-né-h₂-ti, from bʰeyh₂- (to strike, hew) [source]. Words from the same roots include billhook and bone in English, bain (to extract, separate, strike) and béim (a blow, emphasis, beat) in Irish, gofid (grief, sorrow, regret) in Welsh [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Lexicon Cornu-britannicum: A Dictionary of the Ancient Celtic Language of Cornwall, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, Le dictionnaire diachronique du breton, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

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Category: Polish (polski)

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First Things First

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Gnawing Bites

Dutiful Laws

Teary Drops

Seeds

Mixed & Confused

Honey Wine

Axes and Hatchets