Spindly Axles

16th January 2025 By Simon

Words for axle, axis and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	akslā, aksilā, *axsilā = axis
Old Irish (Goídelc)	ais = back, hinder part
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ais = back, hinder part
Irish (Gaeilge)	ais [aʃ/æʃ/ɛʃ] = back
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	aiseal [aʃəl̪ˠ] = axle(-tree), axis
Manx (Gaelg)	essyl = axle, axis
Proto-Brythonic	axl, ėxɨl = axle, axis (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	echel, achel = axle-tree, axle, axis, pivot
Welsh (Cymraeg)	echel [ˈɛχɛl/ˈeːχɛl] = axle-tree, axle, axis, pivot echelu = to furnish with an axle, place on an axle echelbin = linch-pin echelin = axis, axial, axile
Cornish (Kernewek)	aghel = axle
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	ahel, aël = axle
Breton (Brezhoneg)	ahel [ˈɑ(h)ː.ɛl] = axle ahelan = to centre sth on, to pin (together) ahelek = axial

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *axsi- (back), from Proto-Indo-European *h₂eḱs- (axis), possibly from *h₂eǵ- (to drive) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include: axis and axle in English, as (axis) in Dutch, Achse (axis, axle) in German, ais (board, plank) in French, and eje (axis, axle, shaft, spindle, core, heart, hub) in Spanish [source].

Proto-Celtic	u̯ert-iti-, u̯er-t- = to turn
Old Irish (Goídelc)	fertas = axle, spindle, shaft, rung, ridge, bank
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	fertas, fersat = shaft, spoke, axle, shaft, axletree, swingletree
Irish (Gaeilge)	fearsaid [ˈfʲaɾˠsˠədʲ] = spindle, shaft, axle(-tree), passage, piece of poetry, verse, ditty fearsaideach = shafted, spindly
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	fearsad, feairisid [fjar̪ˠsəd, fɛr̪ʃɪdʲ] = spindle, shaft, axle, rung, spoke, track, rut, sandbar, ripple mark (in sand at low tide)
Manx (Gaelg)	fess = spindle
Proto-Brythonic	axl, ėxɨl = axle, axis (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	guerthyt, gwerthyt = spindle, axle, shaft
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gwerthyd = spindle, axle, shaft, rung, stave gwerthydu = to furnish with a spindle or axle, to fashion like a spindle gwerthydaid = spindleful of yarn gwerthydwr = spindle-maker
Old Cornish	gurhthit = spindle
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	gurthid, gurhthit, gurthyd = spindle
Cornish (Kernewek)	gwerthys = bobbin, cage, spindle
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	guirtit, guirtitou = spindle, axis
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	guerzit = spindle, axis
Breton (Brezhoneg)	gwerzhid [ˈɡwɛrzit] = spindle, axis

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *wértti (to be turning around), from *wert- (to turn, rotate) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include: verse, version, versus, vertebra, vertical, vortex, wierd and worth in English, worden (to become, get, grow, turn) in Dutch, and werden (will, be going to) in German [source].

Proto-Celtic	*molos = grinder
Old Irish (Goídelc)	mol = axle (for a mill-wheel), shaft
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	mol, moil, muil = axle, shaft (of a mill-wheel)
Irish (Gaeilge)	mol [mˠɔl̪ˠ / mˠʌlˠ] = hub, shaft, pivot, nave, Pole, top, crown Mol Thuaid = North Pole Mol Theas = South Pole
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	mul [mul̪ˠ] = axis, axle-tree
Manx (Gaelg)	moll = nave

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *molh₂ós, from *melh₂- (to grind, crush) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include: Mjollnir (Thor’s hammer), mallet, meal, mill, millet, molar, and mull in English, Mühle (mill, grinder) in German, milho (maize, corncob) in Portuguese, and mijo (millet) in Spanish [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Dictionnaires bilingues de Francis Favereau / Edition Skol Vreizh, TermOfis

Pursuing Followers

11th January 2025 By Simon

Words for to follow, pursue and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*sekʷetor = to follow
Old Irish (Goídelc)	seichithir = to follow, persue sechem = following, imitating
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	seichithir sechethar, sechtir = to follow, persue sechem, sechim = following, imitating sechimthid, seichteóir, seichthid = follower
Irish (Gaeilge)	seicheamh = following, taking after, imitating, sequence, progression fosheicheamh = subsequence

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *sékʷetor (to be following), from *sekʷ- (to follow) [source]. Words from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Gaulish (?) and Latin segusius (a hunting dog) include: sabuxo (hound) in Galician, segugio (hound, bloodhound, private eye, sleuth) in Spanish, and sabujo (hound, submissive person) in Portuguese [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include: associate, sector, sequence, society, (to) sue, suit, suite and subsequent in English, suivre (to follow) in French, sèkti (to observe, track down, follow, spy on) in Lithuanian, and seguir (to follow, continue, keep (on)) in Spanish [source].

Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	sewye, sewé, sywé = to follow, persue
Cornish (Kernewek)	sewya = to follow, result holyans = consequence, outcome, result, sequel

Etymology: from English (to) sue [source], which used to mean to follow or court, and comes from Middle English seuen (to follow, walk behind, be guided), from Anglo-Norman suer, siwer (to follow), from Old French sivre (to follow after), from Vulgar Latin *sequere (to follow), from Latin sequī, from sequor (to follow, pursue, succeed), from Proto-Italic *sekʷōr (to follow, come/go after), from Proto-Indo-European *sekʷ- (to follow) [source].

Proto-Celtic	linati = to stick, cling ati-linati = to adhere, stick to, cling
Old Irish (Goídelc)	lenaid [ˈl͈ʲenɨðʲ] = to stick, cling, follow, remain, continue, survive lenamain = adhering, clinging, following ad·len = to follow, adhere
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lena(i)d = to remain, continue, survive, pursue, persist, cleave to, cling to, adhere to, stay with, follow len(a)main = adhering, clinging to, stuck in, following, pursuing ad·len = to follow, adhere
Irish (Gaeilge)	lean [lʲan̪ˠ] = to follow, continue, remain, endure leantach = consecutive, continuing leantóir = follower, trailer leanúint = following, persuit, adherence, continuation leanúnach = follower, pursuer, successor, continuant, continuous, successive leanúnachas = continuity, attachment, faithfulness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lean [l̪ʲɛn] = follow, pursue, ensue, succeed, follow, continue, go on, stick to leanachd [l̪ʲɛnəxg] = following, pursuing, pursuit, followers, ensuing, succeeding, continuing leanadail [l̪ʲɛnədal] = attendant leanailteach [l̪ʲɛnnaldʲəx] = adhesive, sticking, sticky, dogged, persistent, tenacious leanailteachd [l̪ʲɛnaldʲəxg] = continuity, perseverance, tenacity, adhesiveness, adhesion leanaltas = perseverance
Manx (Gaelg)	lhian(t) = to follow lhiantag = attachment lhiantyn = following lhiantyn da/gys = to cleave (to) lhiantyn hug = to attach, obsess lhiantyn huggey = to take after lhiantyn rish = to cleave, persevere, pursue, stick to, cling lhiantys = adherence, attachment lhiantynys = adhesion, attachment
Proto-Brythonic	*llɨnad = to stick, cling
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	linisant = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llynu = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear edlynv, eddlynu, edlynu = to smear, besmear, daub, slabber, befoul
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llynaf, llynu = to infect, defile, corrupt, be infectious, smear edlynaf, edlynu = to smear, besmear, daub, slabber, befoul

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂leyH- (to smear) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include lime, liniment, loam and delete in English, lijm (glue) in Dutch, limon (silt) in French, Leim (glue) in German, limo (mud, slime, silt) in Italian, and lim (glue) in Swedish [source].

Proto-Celtic	*solgos = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	olhau = to follow, trace
Welsh (Cymraeg)	olhaf, olhau = to follow, trace
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	holye = to come after, to follow
Cornish (Kernewek)	holya = to follow holyans = sequence holyer, holyores = follower
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	hol = (act of) following
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	heul = following heultaff = to follow
Breton (Brezhoneg)	heul [høːl] = continuation, cortege, parade, escort, procession heuli(a)ñ [ˈhøljã] = to follow heul(iad) [ˈhø.ljat] = procession, line, sequence, continuation, series, train heuliadur = extension heuliata = to continue heuliataer = follower heulier = follower, adept, minion heulius = conformist

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *selgʰ- (to follow) [source].

Larches

8th January 2025 By Simon

Words for larch (tree) and related things in Celtic languages.

The larch is a coniferous tree of the genus Larix with deciduous leaves in fascicles (bundles, clusters) [source]. There are various species of larches found in Europe, Siberia, Canada, the USA, China and Japan [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Irish (Gaeilge)	learóg = larch crann learóige = larch tree
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	learag [l̪ʲɛrag] = larch craobh-learaig = larch tree learach [l̪ʲɛrəx] = larch wood learagach [l̪ʲɛragəx] = abounding in larch trees
Manx (Gaelg)	lhiarrag = larch larsh = larch
Welsh (Cymraeg)	lar(t)s = larch (tree), made of larch-wood, larchen, consisting of larches llarsbren = larch tree llar(s)wydd = larches, larch trees
Cornish (Kernewek)	lar(ch)wedhen = larch

Etymology: from Ancient Greek λάριξ (lárix – larch, Venice turpentine*), possibly from Gaulish *devro (oak?), from Proto-Celtic *daru (oak), from Proto-Indo-European *dóru (tree). The Welsh and Cornish words, and larsh in Manx, come from the same roots via English [source].

*Venice turpentine = A thick substance made from the tree resin of the European larch (Larix decidua), formerly used as a component in the oil paintings to create glossy, translucent glazes [source].

Alternatively, according to Vitruvius (a Roman architect and engineer), larix in Latin was named after Larignum, a town in the Alps surrounded by larch trees which the Romans, lead by Julius Ceasar, beseiged in the 1st century AD when they refused to provide supplies [source].

The English word larch comes from the same roots, via early modern German Larche/Lärche (larch), from Middle High German larche, from Old High German larihha, from Latin larix (larch), from Ancient Greek λάριξ [source].

Words from Latin larix (larch) in other languages include: làrix in Catalan, lariks in Dutch, Lärche in German, ლარიქსი (lariksi) in Georgrian, mélèze in French and lærk in Danish, all of which mean larch (tree) [source].

Larch in Breton is melez, which comes from French mélèze (larch), which comes from Gaulish *mel- (larch) and Latin larix (larch) [source].

Dutiful Laws

30th December 20246th February 2025 By Simon

Words for duty, debt, law, rule and related things in Celtic languages.

Scottish Parliament / Pàrlamaid na h-Alba / Scots Pairlament

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*dligeti = to be entitled to, be obligated to
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dligid = to deserve, merit, be entitled to
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dligid, dleagaid = to be entitled to, have a right to, be owed, deserve, merit
Irish (Gaeilge)	dligh [dʲlʲɪɟ/dʲlʲiː] = to be entitled to, have a right to, deserve, merit, be incumbent on, be liable to, ought to
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dligh [dli] = owe, be due dleas [dles] = deserve, merit, due dleasach [dlesəx] = deserving, meriting dleasadh [dlesəɣ] = (act of) deserving, meriting dleasannas [dlesən̪ˠəs] = obligation, duty dleasanta [dlesən̪ˠdə] = deserving, meriting dleasnach [dlesn̪ˠəx] = dutiful dleastanas [dlesdənəs] = obligation, duty
Manx (Gaelg)	toill = to deserve, will toillchin = to deserve, earn, merit, reward; derserving, worthy toillchinagh = deserving, meritorious toillchinys = desert, merit toillchyn = to deserve, merit toilliu = to deserve, earn, merit; deserving, worthy
Proto-Brythonic	*dɨlɣɨd = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	deleu, dyly, dylu = to be obliged to, ought, be indebted, behove, owe, be in debt, have a right to, claim, merit, deserve, posses, claim from
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dylu [ˈklɛðɨ̞v/ˈkleːðɪv] = to be obliged to, ought, be indebted, behove, owe, be in debt, have a right to, claim, merit, deserve, posses, claim from (other forms include: dylaf, dylÿaf, dlyaf, dylÿu, dlyu, dleu, deleu)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	dely, dylly = to owe, deserve
Cornish (Kernewek)	tyli = to owe, pay, reward tylva = checkout, till
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dleout = must
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dleout [ˈdleː.ut] = to have to, must, owe dleañ = to have to, must, owe; judicious

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *dʰlégʰ-ti/*dʰl̥gʰ-énti, from *dʰlegʰ- (to beat, strike) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots possibly include dolog (thing, object, affair, business, task, fate) in Hungarian, dług (debt, account payable) in Polish, долг (dolg – debt, duty, obligation) in Russian, and dlh (debt) in Slovak [source].

Proto-Celtic	*dligetom = duty, debt
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dliged, dligeth [ˈdʲlʲiɣʲeð] = law, principle, rule, theory, dictum dlecht = lawful dligthech = lawful, right
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dliged, dligeth, dleged = law, principle, rule, norm, dictum, reason, argument, reckoning, nature, condition, kind, manner dligedach = lawful dligemnas = lawful right dligthech = regular, right, lawful, law-abiding, rational, reasonable, just, righteous dligthe(m)nach, dligtheanuigh = lawgiver dligtheoir = lawyer, man of law
Irish (Gaeilge)	dlí [dʲlʲiː] = law, divine precept, scientific principle, litigation dlíodóir = lawyer dlíodóireacht = practice of law, practising law dlíthí = litigant dlíthíoch = litigious dlíthíocht = litigiousness dlíthiúil = legal, juridicial, lawful, litigious dlíthiúilacht = legality, lawfulness dleacht = due, lawful right, royalty, patent dleathach = lawful, legal, valud, genuine, just, proper dleathaíocht = legality, justice, propriety
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	dlighe [dli.ə] = ordinance (in law), due dligheach [dli.əx] = lawful, legitimatem rightful, right, due, dutiful, just dligheachas [dli.əxəs] = lawful right, jurisdiction, validity dligheachd [dli.əxg] = legality, royalty (payment) dligheadh [dli.əɣ] = (act of) owing, being due, stipend dlighear [dli.ər] = lawyer, creditor dligheil [dli.al] = legitimate, lawful, rightful
Proto-Brythonic	*dlɨɣed = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	delehet, deleed, dylyet, dlyet, dylet = debt, due, claim, right, demand, oblitation, duty dylyedawc, dylyedauc, dylyedaỽc dyledawg = noble, privileged, dignified, illustrious, rightful dyledogaeth, dlyedogaeth = nobility, lordship, proprietorship dylyedus, dyledus = due, proper, meet, lawful, worthy, just, necessary, requisite, owing, in debt, indebted dyledwr = debtor, defaulter, trespasser
Welsh (Cymraeg)	dyled [ˈdəlɛd] = debt, due, claim, right, demand, oblitation, duty, service, heritage, estate, worth, privilege, sins, transgressions, trespasses [also written dylêd, dled, dylyed, dlyed] dyled(i)ach = trifling debts, dribbling debts dyledu = to owe, be due, debit, make due dyledog = indebted, in debt, due, noble, privileged, dignified, illustrious, debtor dyl(y)edus = due, proper, meet, lawful, worthy, just, necessary, requisite, owing, in debt, indebted, noble, privileged, dignified, reasonable, sensible, understanding dyledwr = debtor, defaulter, trespasser
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dle = due, owing dleat = moral duty, tax
Breton (Brezhoneg)	dle = due, owing, debt dlead = moral duty, tax dleatour = debtor dleapl = liable dleoniezh = ethics d(e)leour = debtor, creditor

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *dligeti (to owe, be indebted to) – see above [source].

Proto-Celtic	*ká(g)ni- = tribute, law
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cáin [kaːnʲ] = law, regulation, rule, fine, tax, tribute, legal due
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cáin, cain = law, regulation, rule, fine, tax, tribute
Irish (Gaeilge)	cáin [kɑːnʲ/kaːnʲ] = law, regulation, rule, due, tribute, fine, penalty, impost, tax cáinaisnéis = budget cáinaisnéiseach = budgetary
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	càin [kaːn̪ʲ] = duty, tariff, tribute, fine; body of laws (archaic) càin-aisneis = budget càineach, càinear, càiniche = tax/excise collector, tax gatherer càineachadh [kaːn̪ʲəxəɣ] = (act of) imposing a tax

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *keh₂/₃ǵ-n- [source]. Words from the same root may include kázeň (discipline) in Czech, kaźń (execution, torture, torment) in Polish, and kázeň (sermon, discipline) in Slovak [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	cís = tax, tribute
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cís, cis, cíos = tax, tribute, cess, rent císach = receiving or exacting tribute císaige = tributary, rent-payer císugud = paying tribute
Irish (Gaeilge)	cíos [ciːsˠ] = rent, price; tax tribute (historical) cíosach = rent-paying, tributary cíosaí = rent-payer cíosaigh = to rent, pay rent for, compensate for cíoscháin = tribute cíoscheannach = hire-purchase
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cìos [kʲiəs] = tribute, tax cìs [kʲiːʃ] = tax, levy cìsachadh [kʲiːʃəxəɣ] = taxing, taxation cìsachas [kʲiːʃəxəs] = taxation cìseadair [kʲiːʃədɪrʲ] = exciseman cìsear [kʲiːʃər] = tax/excise collector, tax gatherer
Manx (Gaelg)	keesh = custom, duty, tax, toll, tribute, contribution keeshagh = assessable, taxable, tributary keeshyn = taxation, taxes, tribute, dues

Etymology: from Latin cēnsus (census, register, rich gifts, presents, wealth), from cēnseō from Proto-Italic *kensēō (to give an opinion), from *kensējō, from Proto-Indo-European *ḱenséh₁-ye-ti, from *ḱens- (to announce, proclaim, put in order). Words from the same roots may include census in English, censo (census, wealth) in Italian, Zins (interest, tribute) in German, and czynsz (rent) in Polish [source].

Proto-Celtic	rextus = rule, law kom-rextus = law (?)
Celtiberian	Retukeno = personal name
Gaulish	Rextugenos = personal name
Old Irish (Goídelc)	recht, rect [r͈ʲext] = law rechtach = law-giving rechtaid = lawgiver rechtaide = legal rechtaigid = to legislate rechtaire = steward rechtas = stewardship rechtge = government rechtmar = lawful
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	recht, rect, reacht = law, authority, rule, right, lawfulness rechtach = just, equitable, law-giving rechtaid, rechtaidh = judge, lawgiver rechtaide = legal, pertaining to the law, lawful rechtaigid = to legislate rechtaire, rechtorairge = steward, baliff, administrator, judge (?) rechtas, rechtus, rechtcus = authority, administration, stewardship rechtge, rechtga = government, authority, rule, regin rechtmar = lawful, legitimate
Irish (Gaeilge)	reacht [ɾˠaxt̪ˠ] = law, statute, accepted rule reachtach = law-giving, legislative reachtaigh = to legislate, enact, decree reachtaíocht = legislation reachtaire = controller, administrator, steward, Rector, auditor, master of ceremonies reachtas = administration, stewardship reachtmhar = lawful, legitimate reachtóir = lawgiver, legislator reachtúil = statutory, statute
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	reachd [r̪ˠɛxg] = decree, statue, edict reachdach [r̪ˠɛxgəx] = compulsory reachdachadh [r̪ˠɛxgəxəɣ] = (act of) legislating, law-making, legislature reachdadair [r̪ˠɛxgədɪrʲ] = lawmaker, legislator reachdadaireachd [r̪ˠɛxgədɪrʲəxg] = legislature reachdail [r̪ˠɛxgdal] = legislative, statutory reachdas [r̪ˠɛxgəs] = legislation
Proto-Brythonic	rreiθ = rule, law kuβ̃reiθ = law (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	reyth, reith, rhaith = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict cyfreith, kiureith, kefreyth [ˈkəvrai̯θ] = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rhaith [r̥ai̯θ] = law, rule, decree, rightness, justice, right (to smth), recompense, atonement, judgement, verdict rhaithgor = jury cyfraith [ˈkəvrai̯θ] = law, legislation, statute, custom, usage, jurisprudence
Cornish (Kernewek)	reyth = regular, right, religious law reythennek, reythednek = statutory reythen = statute reythe = to authorise, codify, empower, entitle, qualify reythes = authorised, empowered, enacted, entitled, qualified reythyans = enactment, jurispridence, lawmaking, legislation
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	reith = law
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	rez, reiz = law rezder = law
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reizh = right, just, correct, order, normal reizhad = regular reizhadenn = rectification, corrected reizhadur = adjustment reizhan = to correct, adapt, regular, initiate reizhded = correctness, rectitude, normality reizhder = regularity reizhegezh = legitimacy reizhek = legitimate reizhekaat = to legitimize reizhennan = to regulate reizhus = legal

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₃reǵ- (to straighten, to righten) [source]. Words from the same PIE root include rail, rank, realm, regime, rule and regulation in English, rę́žti (to stretch) in Lithuanian, règle (rule, regulation) in French, and regla (rule, ruler) in Spanish [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	ríagal, ríagul = rule
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	ríagal, riagoil, riaguil = rule, authority
Irish (Gaeilge)	riail [ɾˠiəlʲ] = rule, regulation, principle, sway, authority, order rialachán = regulation rialúchán = regulation, control
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	riaghail [r̪ˠiə.al] = rule, govern, administer riaghailt [r̪ˠiə.əldʲ] = rule, regulation, government riaghailteach [r̪ˠiə.əl̪ˠdʲəx] = regular, according to rule, orderly riaghailteachadh [r̪ˠiə.aldʲəxəɣ] = (act of) formulating, regulating, adjusting, adjustment riaghailteachas [r̪ˠiə.aldʲəxəs] = regulatory riaghailteachd = regularity, moderation riaghailtear [r̪ˠiə.aldʲər] = regulator riaghailtearachd [r̪ˠiə.aldʲərəxg] = administration riaghal [r̪ˠiə.əl̪ˠ] = rule
Manx (Gaelg)	reill = code, dominion, governance, policy, principle, reign; to charge, govern, order, regulate, rule reilley = to regulate, reign, rule; ruling reilleyder = governor, regulator, ruler, straight edge reilt = normal, to rule reiltagh = director, ordinal, president, rector, ruler; decisive, ruling, regular reiltys = governance, rule, kingdom, dominion, government
Proto-Brythonic	*rreɣol = rule (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ryol, reol, rhwol = rule, regulation, procedure, order, custom, pattern, government, dominion rhyolaeth, reolaeth = rule, control, management, authority, discipline rwyoli, reoli, ryoli, rhywoli = to rule, control, direct, govern roliad = rule, control, government ryolus, reolus, rheolus, rreolys = regular, orderly, disciplined, moderate, consant
Welsh (Cymraeg)	rheol [ˈr̥eː.ɔl] = rule, regulation, procedure, order, custom, pattern, government, dominion rheol(i)aeth = rule, control, management, authority, discipline rheoli = to rule, control, direct, govern rheolaidd = regular, regulated, orderly rheoliad = rule, control, government rheolus = regular, orderly, disciplined, moderate, consant
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	reol, rowl, rovle = rule, government rowler = ruler, governor
Cornish (Kernewek)	rewl, rowl = regulation, rule rewlya, rowlya = to control, regulate, rule rewlyades, rowlyades = ruler (f) rewlyas, rowlyas = ruler (m) rewlys = regular
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	regul = rule, regulation
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	reul, reol, reoll = rule, regulation reulenn = rule reulennaff = to regulate
Breton (Brezhoneg)	reol = rule, principle, regime reolennadur = regulation reolennan = to regulate reoliadur = regulation reoliata = to regulate reoliek = regular reolius = regulatory

Etymology: from Latin rēgula (rule, bar, ruler), from regō (I rule, govern, direct, guide, steer, control), from Proto-Italic *regō, from Proto-Indo-European *h₃réǵeti (to be straightening, to be setting upright), from *h₃reǵ- (to straighten, to righten) – see above [source].

Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lagh [l̪ˠɤɣ] = law laghachd [l̪ˠɤɣəxg] = legislation laghadh [l̪ˠɤɣəɣ] = legalising, legalisation laghaiche [l̪ˠɤɣɪçə] = lawyer, solicitor laghaichte [l̪ˠɤɣɪçdʲə] = legalised laghail [l̪ˠɤɣal] = legal, lawful, litigious, argumentative laghaileachd [l̪ˠɤɣaləxg] = lawfulness, legality
Manx (Gaelg)	leigh = enactment, law, respect leighagh = legal, litigious leighder = lawyer, advocate, attorney, barrister, council leighoil = lawful, legal, legislative, legitimate

Etymology: from English law, or Middle English lawe/laȝe (law, regulation, morality), or Old English lagu (law, rule, right), all of which come from Old Norse lǫg (law, rule, right), from Proto-Germanic *lagą (situation, law, a settled amount), from Proto-Indo-European *legʰ- (to lie [down]). The English words lie and lay come from the same roots [source].

Gorse & Furze

18th December 202418th December 2024 By Simon

Words for furze, gorse, whin and related things in Celtic languages.

Gorse is an evergreen shrub, of the genus Ulex, having thorns, spiny leaves, and yellow flowers, also known as furze or whin [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*axtīnos = furze, gorse
Old Irish (Goídelc)	aittenn = furze, gorse
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	aittenn, aiten, aittiun, aitend = furze, gorse aittnech = furze-like
Irish (Gaeilge)	aiteann [ˈætʲən̪ˠ] = furze, gorse, whin aiteannach = furze, gorse, whins
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	aiteann [ahdʲən̪ˠ] = (common) gorse, whin, furze, juniper aiteannach [ahdʲən̪ˠəx] = place where junipers grow, clump of junipers, pertaining to junipers
Manx (Gaelg)	aadjin = gorse aittin = furse, gorse, whin
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	eithin = gorse, furze, whin eithinauc, eithinoc, eithinog = full of gorse, furzy, prickly, gorse land
Welsh (Cymraeg)	eithin = gorse, furze, whin eithino = to place furze on top of walls to prevent sheep, etc, from breaking through eithinog = full of gorse, furzy, prickly, gorse land llwyn eithin = gorse bush tân eithin = gorse firse, flash in the pan aith = furze, gorse
Old Cornish	eythinen = furze, gorse
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	eithin, eythinen = furze, gorse
Cornish (Kernewek)	eythinen = furze, gorse
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	ethin = furze, gorse
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	ethin = furze, gorse

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂eḱstis, from *h₂eḱ- (sharp) [source]. Words from the same roots include acid, acute, astute, cute, eager, edge, ear and hear in English, egge (skewed, sharp side, edge, corner) in Dutch, Ecke (corner, edge, region, area, neighbourhood) in German, and aaja (large, wide, board) in Finnish [source].

In Welsh, a dob is an implement for cutting or chopping gorse.

Irish (Gaeilge)	conasg = furze, gorse, whin (?)
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	conas(g), coineas [kɔnəs(g)/kɔ̪nʲəs] = (common) gorse, whin, furze conasgach [kɔnəsgəx] = pertaining to or abounding in gorse/whin/furze
Manx (Gaelg)	conney = gorse, firewood, combustible, fuel, money conney frangagh = furze, gorse, whin conney freoaie = heather

Etymology: uncertain [source].

A word for gorse, furze or whin in Breton is lann, which comes from Middle Breton lann, from Old Breton lann, possibly from Proto-Brythonic *llann (land, area, sacred place), from Proto-Celtic *landā (land), from Proto-Indo-European *lendʰ- (land, heath). It appears in place names such as Landaol, Landagroez, Landnarvili and Landudeg, and may be related to the Welsh word llan (church, parish). See the Celtiadur post about Land, Parishes & Enclosures for more details.

Here’s a Welsh folk song, Gwcw Fach (Little Cuckoo), which mentions eithin. It’s played by some my friends of mine – Irfan Rais on bouzouki, Meinir Olwen on cello and Joshua Smith on mandolin.

Cards

5th December 2024 By Simon

Words for card and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	cairt = charter, manuscript, parchment
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cairt, carta = manuscript, parchment, book, written charter, right, claim cárta, cárda = (playing) card
Irish (Gaeilge)	cárta [ˈkɑːɾˠt̪ˠə / ˈkæːɾˠt̪ˠə] = card cairt [kɑɾˠtʲ / kaɾˠtʲ] = chart, charter, parchment, deed cairtchlár = cardboard cairteoir = map-maker cairteoireacht = map-making cairtfhostaigh = to charter cairtiúil = parchment-like
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cairt [kar̪ˠʃdʲ] = card, chart, cart, charter cairteachadh [ka̪ˠʃdʲəxəɣ] = (act of) charting
Manx (Gaelg)	caart = card, playing card kaart = card, charter
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	card, kard = (playing) card kardwr = card-player, card maker
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cerdyn [ˈkɛrdɨ̞n / ˈkɛrdɪn] = playing card, card game, card used for writing or printing on (also written card, cardyn or carden) cardfwrdd, cardbwrdd = cardboard, card table cardiaf, cardio = to play at cards card(i)wr = card-player, card maker
Cornish (Kernewek)	karten = card
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	carten = charter, paper, card
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kartenn [ˈkar.tɛn] = (playing) card, chart kartennaoueg = carton, cartridge kartenner = cartographer kartenniñ [karˈtɛ.nːĩ] = cartographer kartennouriezh [ˌkar.tɛ.nuˈriː.ɛs] = cartography

Etymology: from Old French carte (card), from Latin charta (papyrus, paper, letter, poem, charter), from Ancient Greek χάρτης (khártēs – paper, papyrus) from possibly from Phoenician 𐤇𐤓𐤈𐤉𐤕 (ḥrṭyt – “something written”), which is cognate with Biblical Hebrew חֶרֶט (ḫereṭ – stylus, style of writing) [source].

The Welsh words were borrowed from English card, which comes from Middle English carde (playing card), from Old French carte (card) [source].

Words from the same roots include card, chart and charter in English, siart (chart) in Welsh, hartă (map), hârtie (paper), cartă (charter) and carte (book, card) in Romanian, Karte (card, map, chart, menu, ticket) in German, כַּרְטִיס (kartís – card, ticket) in Hebrew, карта (karta – card) and хартия (hartija – paper) in Bulgarian, and քարտ (kʻart – [playing] card) in Armenian [source].

Original Pedigree

21st November 2024 By Simon

Words for origin, basis, nobility and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*bonusedom = lineage, pedigree, origin
Old Irish (Goídelc)	bunad = basis, origin, stock
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	bunad, bonadh, búnad = origin, basis, source, stock bunadach, bunadhach = belonging to the original stock bunadas, bunus = origin, source bunatta, bunata = original, basic, permanent
Irish (Gaeilge)	bunadh [ˈbˠʊn̪ˠə] = origin, stock, kind, native inhabitants, original, fundamental, basic, base bunaigh = to found, establish bunaíoch = primitive bunaíocht = establishment bunús = origin, basis, substance, essence, wealth, majority
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	bunadh [bunəɣ] = origin, stock, rock, foundation
Manx (Gaelg)	bunneydagh = basic, elemental, fundamental, original, primitive, radical bunneydys = basis, foundation, groundwork, origin, root
Proto-Brythonic	*bonheð = ?
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	boned, bonhed = nobility, nobleness, noble, descent, lingeage, pedigree
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	boned, bonhed = nobility, nobleness, noble, descent, lingeage, pedigree bon(h)edigeid, bonhedigeit = noble, aristocratic, honourable, gracious, kind, gentle, courteous, polite bonedigeidrwyd = nobility, nobleness, aristocracy, gentility, chivalry, courtesy bonhedyc, bonhedic, bonheddig = noble, aristocratic
Welsh (Cymraeg)	bonedd = nobility, nobleness, noble, descent, lineage, pedigree boneddigaidd = noble, aristocratic, honourable, gracious, kind, gentle, courteous, polite boneddigeiddrwydd = nobility, nobleness, aristocracy, gentility, chivalry, courtesy bonheddig = noble, aristocratic bonheddu = to ennoble, dignify bonheddes = lady, Lady bonheddwr = nobleman, gentleman, aristocrat

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *bonus (base) + *sedom (seat, sitting) – see also the posts Foundations and Peace and Fairies, and for other words related to nobles, princes, chiefs, etc, see the post Leader in Chief.

Old Irish (Goídelc)	cepp = block, (tree) stump
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cepp, cip, cep = tree-stump, log, block, anvil-block genealogical stock, ancestor ceppach, cepach, cepaig = piece of ground where trees have been felled, slaughter ceppaid = to shape, form, fashion, confine, restrict ceppdae = inert
Irish (Gaeilge)	ceap [capˠ] = stock, block, base, (shoemaker’s) last, nave, hub, compact body, chief, protector, (flower) bed ceapadh = fashioning, composition, formation, appointment, assignation, conception ceapadóir = shaper, moulder, composer, inventor ceapadóireacht = composition ceapaire = shaped, moulded, object, shapely person, thing, sandwich
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ceap [kʲɛhb] = block, (shoemaker’s) last, lump, cape, cap, turf, stocks, fret
Manx (Gaelg)	kiap = block, butt, log, pad, pillow, snag, stock, trunk
Proto-Brythonic	*kɨf = the most in chief
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	ciphillion = stock, trunk, box, ancestry, blockhead, dull-witted person
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	kyf(f), cyff = (tree) trunk, stock, stem, stump, log, trunk (of body), block, blockhead; box, coffer, chest; stocks, kinsfolk, lineage, ancestry, origin, race, source kyfyll, kiffil, cyffyll = stock, trunk, box, ancestry, blockhead, dull-witted person
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cyff [kɨːf/kiːf] = (tree) trunk, stock, stem, stump, log, trunk (of body), block, blockhead; box, coffer, chest; stock, kinsfolk, lineage, ancestry, origin, race, source cyffyll = stock, trunk, box, ancestry, blockhead, dull-witted person
Cornish (Kernewek)	kyf = log
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	cepp = stump, stock, log, trunk
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	queff = stump, stock, log, trunk
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kef [kefː] = trunk, log, box kefiañ = to make branches, put the irons (on)

Etymology: from Latin cippus / cīpus (stake, post, gravestone, landmark), possibly from Proto-Italic *keipos, from Proto-Indo-European *(s)ḱéypos (pole, stick). Words from the same roots include ceppo (stump, log, block of wood), cipo (milestone) in Spanish, and Kipfl (croissant) in German [source].

Proto-Celtic	akkā = ? akkiyā = proximity, lineage
Old Irish (Goídelc)	aicce = nearness, proximity
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	aicce, aicci = nearness, proximity, near, beside, fosterage
Irish (Gaeilge)	aice [ˈacɪ] = nearness, proximity in aice (na/le) = near aicearra = short-cut, abridgement aicerrach = short, near, pithy, succinct aicerracht = shortness, pithiness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	aice [açgʲə] = proximity
Manx (Gaelg)	faare = adjacent, presence, proximity, near, nigh
Proto-Brythonic	*ax = ?
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ach = lineage, descent, pedigree, genealogy, ancestry, family origins achwet = lingeage, descent, pedigree, kindred, family
Welsh (Cymraeg)	ach [aːχ] = lineage, descent, pedigree, genealogy, ancestry, family origins achres(tr) = genealogical table, pedigree, lineage achwedd = lingeage, descent, pedigree, kindred, family achwr, achydd, achyddwr = genealogist, herald achwyddol = genealogical, heraldic achyddu = to genealogize achyddiaeth = genealogy, heraldry; lineage, pedigree
Old Cornish	ach = offspring, progeny
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	ach = offspring, progeny, stock, kindred
Cornish (Kernewek)	agh [æːx] = offspring, race aghel = racial aghskrif = pedigree
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	acom = ?

Etymology: possibly from PIE *h₂ekkeh₂. Words from the same root include अक्का (akkā – mother) in Sanskrit, आक्का (ākkā – older sister, elderly woman) in Marathi and අක්‍කා (akkā – older sister) in Sinhalese [source 1, source 2].

In Cornish, origin, beginning, start, inception or opening = dalleth; noble = nobyl, pennsevik, ughelor or bryntin; lineage or race = linieth (Middle Cornish), and race or ethnicity = hil (Revived Cornish) – see the post about Seeds.

Gritty Gravel

11th November 202411th November 2024 By Simon

Words for gravel, grit and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*griyano- = gravel
Old Irish (Goídelc)	grïan [ˈɡʲrʲi.an] = gravel, sand, river bottom, sea floor grindell = gravel, lake bed, sea bed
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	grian, grían = gravel, sand, sea or river bottom, basis, foundation, earth, land grenach, grenaig = gravel grindell, grinnell, grinneal = sea or lake bed, gravel, bedrock, foundation, floor, bottom
Irish (Gaeilge)	grean [ɟɾʲan̪ˠ] = gravel, grit, coarse sand; to engrave grian = (sea, lake, river) bottom, earth, surface grianach = gravelly greanach = gravel, gravelly spoil, gritty greanadh = engraving, shapeliness, shape, figure greanadóir = engraver greanadóireacht = engraving greanchloch = gritstone, millstone grineall = (sea, lake, river) bed, bedrock, depth, foundation
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	grean [grʲɛn̪] = (river / lake) bed, gravel, coarse sand grean-aibhne = riverbed grinneal [grʲin̪ʲəL] = gravel, grit, (river / sea) bottom grinnealach = deep, gulfy, gravelly, sabulous (sandy or gritty) grinnealachd = grittiness
Manx (Gaelg)	grineen = bead, granule, grit, pinch grineenagh = gritty, grained, grainy, granulated, granulous grineenid = grittiness
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	graean, grayan, graeeyn = gravel, coarse sand, shingle, grit, grain, granule graenauc, graeanog, graianoc = gravelly, full of gravel, harsh, grating
Welsh (Cymraeg)	graean [ˈɡreɨ̯.an / ˈɡrei̯.an] = gravel, coarse sand, shingle, grit, grain, granule grae(a)nog = gravelly, full of gravel, harsh, grating graeanu = to (spread) gravel (over), to granulate, scour, grit

Etymology: uncertain, possibly related to Proto-Celtic *grāwā (gravel, pebbles) – see below [source].

Proto-Celtic	*grāwā = gravel, pebbles
Irish (Gaeilge)	griothal = gravel, gravelly soil griothalach = gravelly, gritty
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	grothal = gravel
Proto-Brythonic	*grọw = gravel, pebbles
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	gro = gravel, shingle
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	gro = gravel, shingle grodir, gro dir = gravelly land, sandy soil, grave
Welsh (Cymraeg)	gro [ɡroː] = gravel, shingle, gravelly shore, strand grobwll = gravel pit, grave grodir = gravelly land, sandy soil, grave
Old Cornish	grou = gravel, sand
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	grow = gravel, sand
Cornish (Kernewek)	grow = gravel growan = granite growanen = pebble growen = gravel
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	grean, grouan = gravel grouanec = gravelly, grave pit groanenn = piece of gravel
Breton (Brezhoneg)	grouan [ˈɡruːãn] = gravel grouanañ = to engrave grouaneg = gravelly, grave pit grouanenn = piece of gravel grouanus = gravelly

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *gʰroh₁weh₂, from *gʰreh₁w- (to grind).
Words from the same Proto-Celtic roots include grava (gravel) in Catalan, grève (flat, sandy land along the sea or a large river) in French, grava (gravel) in Spanish, and grave (gravel, shore, gravelly ground) in Occitan [source].

Words from the same PIE roots include: grit, groat, grout and gruel in English, Grieß (semolina) in German, grjót (coarse stones, rubble) in Icelandic, gryt (a badger’s sett, a fox’s den) in Swedish, riutta (reef) in Finnish, and grúodas (frozen mud or earth) in Lithuanian [source].

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	graibél = gravel, sand
Irish (Gaeilge)	gairbhéal = gravel gairbhéalach = gravelly gairbhéalta = gravelled
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	greabhal = gravel
Manx (Gaelg)	garvel = gravel
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	grafel, gravael, gravel = gravel
Welsh (Cymraeg)	graf(a)el = gravel grafelu, grafaelio = to sprinkle with gravel, make sore by chafing graf(a)eliog = gravelly

Etymology: from English gravel or Middle English gravel / gravail(le) (sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles), from Old French gravele (gravel), a diminutive of grave (gravel, seashore), from Medieval Latin grava, possibly from Gaulish grava, from Proto-Celtic grāwā (gravel, pebbles), from Proto-Indo-European *gʰroh₁weh₂, from *gʰreh₁w- (to grind) [source].

Teary Drops

30th October 2024 By Simon

Words for tear, drop and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	dakrū / dakrom = tear, drop (of liquid)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	dér, dǽr = tear, teardrop, drop
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	dér, déor, deór = tear, drop dérach, derach = tearful, sad, lugubrious derchoínuid, derchoiniud (verbnoun) = despair, dejection, lamentation derchoíntech, dérchaintech (adjective) = despairing, tearful, sorrowful dérfadach = shedding of tears, weeping
Irish (Gaeilge)	deoir [dʲoːɾʲ/dʲɔːɾʲ] = tear(-drop), drop deoirfhliuch = tear-stained deoirghás = tear-gas deoirghinteach = lachrymatory deoircín = little drop, anecdote deoiríneacht = shedding tears, being tearfully sentimental, tearfulness, maudliness deorach = tearful, lachrymal deordradh = (act of) dripping deoraíl = (act of) weeping
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	deòr [dʲɔːr] = drop (of liquid), tear deur [dʲiər] = drop (of liquid), tear, small amount of liquid deurach [dʲiərəx] = tearful, weeping deuran [dʲiəran] = little drop, wee drop, wee tincture
Manx (Gaelg)	jeir/jëir = tear, teardrop, spot, lachrymal, lachrymatory jeir-phianaghey = to agonize jeiragh = tearful, lachrymal, mournful jeirnys = lamentation, weeping
Proto-Brythonic	*dėgr = tear (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	deigir, deigyr, deigrev = tear, teardrop, drop
Welsh (Cymraeg)	deigryn, deigr [ˈdei̯ɡrɨ̞n / ˈdei̯ɡrɪn] = tear, teardrop, drop, raindrop deigryniad = a distilling, dripping, trickling deigrynnu = to drip, trickle, distil, exude, ooze, shed tears, drizzle deigrynnol = apt to shed tears, lachrymose, tearful
Old Cornish	dacr-(lon) = tear
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	dagren = a small drop, a tear
Cornish (Kernewek)	dagren [daːr / dæːr] = drop, tear dagrewi = to shed tears, weep derw = oak trees
Old Breton	dacrlon = tear, teardrop
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	dar(rou) = tear(s), teardrop(s)
Breton (Brezhoneg)	daer [dɛːr] = tear, teardrop daeraouus = tearful daeraouiñ, daerin = to cry, be tearful daererezh = tearing

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European dáḱru (tear). Words from the same root include δάκρυ (dákry – tear) in Greek, tear and lacrimal/lachrymal (relating to tears, tearful) in English, tår (tear, drop) in Swedish, traan (tear, fish oil) in Dutch, Träne (tear) in German, lágrima (tear, teardrop) in Spanish, and zacchera (mud splash) in Italian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	bráen = rain, moisture, drop, precipitation
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	bráen, bróin, bróen = rain, moisture, drop(s) bráenach, braonach = shedding drops, wet, moist, well-watered bráenaid = to wet, sprinkle, rain bráenán = drops, shower bráenfadach = foaming (of a waterfall) bráengal = shower, sprinkling
Irish (Gaeilge)	braon [bˠɾˠeːn̪ˠ / bˠɾˠiːnˠ] = (single) drop, gathering, pus braonach = dripping, misty, wet, tearful braonaíl = dripping, drops braonán = droplet
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	braon [brɯːn] = drop, drizzle braonach [brɯːnəx] = drizzly, dewy braonadh [brɯːnəɣ] = (act of) drizzling braonan [brɯːnan] = small drop (of liquid), dram
Manx (Gaelg)	brey = drop

Etymology: unknown. Possibly related to Ancient Greek βρέχω (brékhō – I send rain), Latin rigo (I water, moisten), and English rain [source].

Proto-Celtic	*bandyo- = drop
Old Irish (Goídelc)	banne = drop, pustule bannán = small drop, droplet
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	bannae, bainne, banne = drop, pustule, milk
Irish (Gaeilge)	bainne [ˈbˠaɲə / ˈbˠan̠ʲə] = milk bainniúil = milky, milk-yielding bainniúilacht = milkiness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	bainne = milk boinne [bɔn̪ʲə] = drop, small quantity, liquid measure boinneag [bɔn̪ʲag] = droplet, little/small drop, (alcoholic) drink boinnean [bɔn̪ʲan] = droplet, wee drop
Manx (Gaelg)	bainney [banʲə] = milk
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	ban = drop (?)
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	ban, banna, banné = drop, a jot, the smallest portion of anything
Cornish (Kernewek)	banna = bit, drop
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	banne, bannhe, bannech = drop, droplet
Breton (Brezhoneg)	banne [ˈbã.nːe] = drop, droplet, glass banneata = to drink shots

Etymology: uncertain. Possibly related to French bain (bath) in French, baño (bath, bathroom, toilet), bagno (bath, to swin, bathe, bathroom) in Italian, and bania (jug, can, container, churn) in Polish [source].

Sufficiently Enough

23rd October 2024 By Simon

This post looks into words for enough, sufficient and related things in the Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic	ɸroweros = many, enough, sufficient laweros = many, enough, sufficient
Old Irish (Goídelc)	lór = enough, sufficient, sufficiency
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lór, loor, lour, leór, lour = enough, sufficient, great, ample, adequate, competent; sufficiently
Irish (Gaeilge)	leor [l̠ʲoːɾˠ/l̠ʲɔːɾˠ] = sufficient, ample, go leor = enough, plenty leorchúiteamh = indemnification leordhóthain = sufficiency, plenty leorgnhíomh = full amends, reparation, restitution
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	leòr [̪lʲɔːr] = satiety, sufficency gu leòr [gə l̪ʲɔːr] = enough, sufficient(ly), galore leòr-ghnìomh = satisfaction leòrachd = amplitude
Manx (Gaelg)	liooar = sufficient dy liooar = adequate, ample, enough, galore, sufficient, umpteen
Proto-Brythonic	*llower =
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llauer, llawer = many, lot, much, abundance, large quantity, frequent, numerous llauered, llawered, llavered = many, large number(s), lot(s), much, abundance
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llawer [ˈɬau̯.ɛr] = many, lot, much, abundance, large quantity, frequent, numerous llaweredd = many, large number(s), lot(s), much, abundance llawerhau = to multiply
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	lower, = many, much
Cornish (Kernewek)	lower = many, much lower gweyth = often

Etymology: the reconstruction of the Proto-Celtic root is disputed – both possibilities are given. *laweros is possibly from *leh₂w- (to seize, to gain, benefit, prize) [source], which is also the root of the English word lucre (money, riches, wealth), the Swedish word lön (reward, salary, wage), the Irish word luach (value, price, reward), and the Welsh word golud (wealth, riches) [source].

The English word galore comes from Irish go leor and/or Scottish Gaelic gu leòr [source].

Proto-Celtic	sātis = sufficiency, fill sāss-ā- = to satisfy
Old Irish (Goídelc)	sáth [saːθ] = satiety sáith = fill (of food), sufficiency sáthech = sated, satiated, satisfied sáithigid = to satiate, satisfy
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	sáith, sáth, sāth = sufficiency, as much as one requires, fill (of food), customary meal, appetite sáthech, sathach, sāithech = satisfied, filled, content, flourishing sáithigid, saithigudh = to satiate, satisfy
Irish (Gaeilge)	sáith [sˠɑː(h)/sˠaːç] = (full) meal, feed, fill, sufficiency, enough sáithigh = to sate, satiate, saturate sáithitheach = saturating sáithiú = satiety, saturation
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	sàth [saː] = plenty, abundance, fill sàthach [saː.əx] = filling, satiating; satiated person, bellyful, plenty, enough sàthachadh [saː.əxəɣ] = (act of) sating sàthachd [saː.əxg] = satuaration
Manx (Gaelg)	saie = satiety, fill, satisfaction, replete, satiated saiaghey = to satisfy, saturate saieagh = satiating, satisfied saieid = satiation, repletion, glut saieys = satiety, repletion, sufficiency

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *seh₂- (to satiate, satisfy) [source], which is also the root of sad, satisfy and satiety in English; satt (not hungry, satiated, full, done) in German; zat (fed up, drink, sated, full) in Dutch; sazio (sated, full up) in Italian, and sāts (moderation, satiety, fill) in Latvian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	doíthin = sufficency
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	doíthin, doéthain, deothin = a sufficiency, enough doíthenach = satiated, satisfied
Irish (Gaeilge)	dóthain [ˈd̪ˠoːhənʲ/ˈd̪ˠɔhənʲ] = enough, sufficiency dóthanach = satiated, fed up, tired dóthanacht = satiety
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	daothain [dɯː.ɪn̪ʲ] = sufficency, fill

Etymology: unknown [source].

Proto-Celtic	*dīkāneti = (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	dicone = to do, make, act, perform
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	digaun, digawn, digaunt = enough, sufficiency, plenty diconher, digoni = to do, make, act, perform
Welsh (Cymraeg)	digon [ˈdɪɡɔn] = enough, sufficiency, plenty, abundance, adequate, plentiful, ample digoni = to do, make, act, perform, to satisfy, suffice, fill, satiate, digonol = adequate

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Celtic *dī- (from, of) and *kān- (sound) [source].

Breton words for enough, sufficient, etc include:

trawalc’h = enough (of), enough!
bast = sufficient
brasoni = sufficiency
sufis = sufficient, adequate

Etymology: unknown.

Celtiadur

Exploring connections between Celtic languages

Category: German (Deutsch)

Spindly Axles

Pursuing Followers

Larches

Dutiful Laws

Gorse & Furze

Cards

Original Pedigree

Gritty Gravel

Teary Drops

Sufficiently Enough