Swearing Oaths

13th August 202514th August 2025 By Simon

Today we’re looking at the words for oath, vow, (to) swear and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	lug = oath lugyom = oath, swearing
Old Irish (Goídelc)	luige = oath, swearing lugae = oath luigid = to swear
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	luige, lug, luga, lugae = oath, (act of) swearing lugach = given to swearing, assertive, contentious luigid, luigaid = to swear
Irish (Gaeilge)	luigh [l̪ˠɪɟ / l̪ˠiː] = to swear (literary) luighe = oath
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	lùgh [l̪ˠuː] = swear! curse! lùghadh [l̪ˠuː.əɣ] = (act of) swearing, oath, (act of) cursing lùighe [l̪ˠuːjə] = (act of) swearing, oath, (act of) cursing
Manx (Gaelg)	loo [luː] = oath, swear(ing), affidavit looee = oath
Proto-Brythonic	*lluɣ = (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	llv, llw = (solemn) oath, vow, oath, swear word, curse, blasphemy
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llw [ɬuː] = (solemn) oath, vow, oath, swear word, curse, blasphemy
Cornish (Kernewek)	li = oath lia = to swear, take an oath
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	dilu = oath
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	le, lé = oath, blasphemy leanty = convent
Breton (Brezhoneg)	le [leː] = oath, swear, vow leañ [ˈleː.ã] = to swear, take an oath leandi [leˈãn.di] = convent

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *lewgʰ- (to announce, tell, publicly) [source]. Words from the same roots include lie in English, liegen (to lie, tell lies) in Dutch, lügen (to tell a lie, to lie) in German, ljuga (to lie, to tell an untruth) in Swedish, łgać (to lie, feign, simulate) in Polish [source].

Proto-Celtic	tungeti = to swear (an oath) writ-tungeti = to counter-swear
Gaulish	toncsiiontio = (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	tongaid = to swear fristoing = to forswear
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	tongaid, toṅga, tongu = to swear, take an oath
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	tuinge = oath
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	twng, twg = a swearing, oath tyngu = to swear (an oath) gurthtygho, gurhtuc, gvrthegho, gurthtug = to counter-swear
Welsh (Cymraeg)	twng, twnc = a swearing, oath tyngu = to swear (an oath) camdyngu = to swear falsely, forswear cytyngu = to swear together, take a mutal oath gwrthdyngu = to counter-swear
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	ty = an oath, imprecation
Cornish (Kernewek)	ti = oath, vow, swear tia = to swear, vow
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	toeaff, touet = to swear, curse
Breton (Brezhoneg)	tou [tu:] = oath touiñ [ˈtuː.ĩ] = to swear, curse

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *h₂lewgʰ- (to announce), or from PIE *th₂négti (to touch, grasp; to take), from *teh₂g- (to touch, take) [source].

Proto-Celtic	*mandu = mark, sign, spot
Old Irish (Goídelc)	mind [mʲin͈d] = crown, insignia, oath
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	mind, minn = crown, diadem, oath, vow
Irish (Gaeilge)	mionn = crown, diadem, oath mionnach = swearing, given to swearing mionnadóir = swearer mionnaigh = to swear mionnú = swearing, adjuration mórmhionnach = addicted to swearing
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	mionn [mjũːn̪ˠ] = oath, curse, (act of) cursing, insignia mionnaichte [mjun̪ʲɪçdʲə] = bound by oath, sworn, avowed mionnan [mjun̪ˠan] = (act of) swearing an oath, (act of) cursing, small curse mionnach [mjuːn̪ˠəx] = pertaining to or abounding in oaths or curses, swearing, sweary, cursing mionn [mjũːn̪ˠ] =
Manx (Gaelg)	mian = to wish mianey = to wish, desire, hanker, fancy, long, lust mynney = to swear, swear-word, imprecation, oath-book
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	mann = spot, speck, blemish, stain, mark
Welsh (Cymraeg)	man [man] = spot, speck, blemish, stain, mark mannig = spot, dot, particle. breve (in music)

Etymology: uncertain [source], possibly from Proto-Indo-European *mend- (physical defect, fault) [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	móit = vow
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	móit, móid = vow, oath, wish, desire
Irish (Gaeilge)	móid [mˠoːdʲ] = vow móidach = votary, votive móidghealladh = solemn promise, profession móidigh = to vow móidín = devotee
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	mòid [mɔːdʲ] = oath, solemn promise, swearing, vow mòideachadh [mɔːdʲəxəɣ] = (act of) swearing, vowing

Etymology: from Latin vōtum (promise, dedication, vow, will, desire, prayer), from voveō (to vow, promise, dedicate), from Proto-Italic *wogʷeō (to vow, promise, dedicate), from Proto-Indo-European *h₁wogʷʰéyeti, from *h₁wegʷʰ- (to promise, vow, praise) [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, Teanglann.ie, Am Faclair Beag, An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Online Manx Dictionary, Gaelg Corpus, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Lexicon cornu-britannicum : a dictionary of the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, Gerlyver Kernewek, Devri : Le dictionaire diachronique du breton, Geriafurch, TermOfis

Ashen Embers

6th August 2025 By Simon

Words for ash, embers, cinders and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	loutus, loutwos, *loutwis = ash (from a fire)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	lúaith = ashes, dust lúaithred = ashes, dust
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	lúaith, luaith = ashes, dust lúaithne, luaithne = speck of ash lúaithred, luaithred = ashes, dust lúaithreda, luaitherda = dusty lúaithremail = ashen lúaithremán = creature of dust
Irish (Gaeilge)	luaith [l̪ˠuə(ç) / l̪ˠui̯] = ashes luaitheartha = ashen, dusty luaithghríosach = hot ashes luaithreach = ashes, dust luaithreadán = ashtray luaithreamhán = ashes, heap of ashes luaithrigh = sprinkle with ashes luaithriúil = ashy, ashen Céadaoin an Luaithrigh = Ash Wednesday
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	luath [ˈl̪ˠuə] = ash(es) luaithre [ˈl̪ˠuərʲə] = ash(es), dust luaithreach [ˈl̪ˠuərʲɪç] = ash(es), dust luaithreachadh = (act of) turning to ash luaithreadh = (act of) throwing ashes, turning to dust/ash(es), ash(es), dust luaithrich = turn to ash!
Manx (Gaelg)	leoie [ləːi̯] = ash, dross leoireydane = ashtray lorgaghey, shlig-leoie = to drive (on/along), to urge on, urging leoieagh = ashy leoiragh = ashy, dusty
Proto-Brythonic	*llʉdw = ash(es) (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	lludu, llvdw, lludw, llutw, llytw = ash(es), cinders, embers lludwaw, llutwaw = to reduce to ashes, burn down, incinerate
Welsh (Cymraeg)	llwdw, lludu [ˈɬɨ̞dʊ / ˈɬiːdu] = ash(es), cinders, embers, lava, ruins or remains, shattered hopes llwdwo, lludio = to reduce to ashes, burn down, incinerate llwdwog = full of ashes or embers, ashy llwdwol = ash-like, tending to reduce to ashes llwdw du coal dust llwdw sebonog = potash
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	lusow, losow, lidzhu = ashes, or the remains of anything burnt
Cornish (Kernewek)	lusu = ash (from a fire) lusuegyn, lujuegyn = ashtray lusuen, lujuen = ember, piece of ash
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	ludu = ash
Breton (Brezhoneg)	ludu [ˈlyːdy] = ash, fertilizer ludua = to buy / look for ash luduan, luduañ = to incinerate ludueg = ashtray, homebody luduek = covered in ash, ashen luduenn = Cinderella luduer = incinerator, ash merchant luduet = reduced to ashes

Etymology: uncertain, possibly from from Proto-Indo-European *lewh₃- (to wash), or from PIE *lew- (dirt) [source]

Old Irish (Goídelc)	smál, smól, smúal = ashes, ember, live coal, blemish
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	smál, smól, smúal, smual = ember, glowing coal, fire, ashes, dross, blemish, taint
Irish (Gaeilge)	smól = live coal, ember, smouldering fire; a burnt-out or charred object smólachán = smouldering, charred, material smóladán = snuffers, lamp-scissors
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	smal [smal̪ˠ] = blemish, stain, impurity, spot, speck, smudge smòlach = ember, thrush

Etymology: uncertain [source], possibly from Proto-Indo-European *melh₂- (to grind, crush). Words from the same roots in include melde (to announce, report, notify), молния (lightning, zip(per)), and Mjǫllnir, Mjollnir (the hammer of the Norse god Thor) [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	smúr = ashes, dust, dross, rust
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	smúr, smur = dust, dross, rust
Irish (Gaeilge)	smúr [ˈsˠmˠuːɾˠ] = ash, dross, dust, rust, soot, grime smúrabhán = soot, lampblack smúrach = dusty, sooty, grimy smúránta = dull, hazy (weather) smúrlach = snout, dirty, grimy face smúrlóg = grimy-faced girl, mudlark
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	smúr [smuːr] = dross, junk, rubbish, particle, blemish, drizzle smúrach [smuːrəx] = dross, junk, rubbish, crumbs, drizzle smúrag [smuːrag] = tiny particle, tiny bit smúran [smuːran] = small particle, mote, an iota, tiny bit (of)
Manx (Gaelg)	smarage = cinder, ember, live coal

Etymology: uncertain, possibly related to smother and smoulder in English, and smeulen (to smoulder) in Dutch [source], which all ultimately come from Proto-Indo-European *(s)meld- (to burn, smoulder, smoke; tar, pitch) [source].

First Things First

31st July 202531st July 2025 By Simon

Words for first, before, previous, and related things in Celtic languages.

first things first

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	kentus = first kentuslongos = early meal kentusamonyos, kintusamīnos, kintusamonis = beginning of summer, May kentusedom = first seat
Gaulish	cintus = first (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cét- [ˈkʲeː.d] = first cétaín [ˈkʲeː.dai̯nʲ] = Wednesday (“first fast”) cétmuinter = spouse, wife cétnae = first, same cétóir = first time, beginning
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cét- [kax / kex] = first, early, primary, former cétad = seat, couch cétaín [ˈkʲeː.dai̯nʲ] = Wednesday cétlongad = fasting
Irish (Gaeilge)	céad [ciːa̯d̪ˠ / ceːd̪ˠ] = first Céadaoin [ˈceːd̪ˠiːnʲ] = Wednesday céalacan = moring fast
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	ciad [kʲiad] = first ciadaineach [kʲiədɪn̪ʲəx] = pertaining to Wednesday, falling on a Wednesday DiCiadain [dʲɪˈkʲiədɪn̪ʲ] = Wednesday
Manx (Gaelg)	kied = first, primary, senior chied = first, initial, primary kied chouyr = first aid Crean = Mercury, Wednesday
Proto-Brythonic	kɨnt = earlier, sooner, before, former, previous kɨntüheð = porch, entry, court (?) *kɨntühaβ̃in = beginning of summer, first month of summer, May (?)
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cin, kin, kyn(n), cynn = before, previous to, preceding cynda(i)d = ancestor, forefather kynt, cynt = earlier, sooner, former(ly), previous(ly), before, quicker, faster, swifter, rather (than) kyn(n)hayaf, kynhaeaf, cynhaeaf = harvest(-time), autumn kantaf, kyntaf, kyntaw, kentaf = swiftest, quickest, fastest, fleetest, first, foremost, chief, principal cyntedd = porch, lobby, vestibule, entry, court, forecourt kintevin, kynteuin, kyntefin = beginning of summer, first month of summer, May, spring, summer kythlwng = fasting, hunger
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cyn [kɨ̞n / kɪn] = before, previous to, preceding cynt [kɨ̞nt / kɪnt] = earlier, sooner, former(ly), previous(ly), before, quicker, faster, swifter, rather (than) cyntaf = swiftest, quickest, fastest, fleetest, first, foremost, chief, principal cynhaeaf = harvest(-time), autumn cyntedd [ˈkəntɛð] = porch, lobby, vestibule, entry, court, forecourt cyntefin [kənˈtɛvɪn] = beginning of summer, first month of summer, May, spring, summer cythlwng = fasting, hunger
Old Cornish	kyniaf = harvest(-time), autumn
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	cyn, cen, ken = first, before (that) cens, kens = before, formerly, rather cenzhoha, kenzhoha = the morning cynsa, censa, kensa = the first, chief cyniaf, kyniaw, cidniadh, cidniaz = autumn, harvest, time (“before winter”)
Cornish (Kernewek)	kyns, kens = former, previous, sooner, earlier, formerly, rather, before kyns ena, kens ena = previously, before then kynsa, kensa = first, initial kynser(es) = apprentice kynserneth = apprenticeship kynsistorek = prehistoric
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	quent = before quentaff = first
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kent [ˈkɛ̃nt] = before, previously, rather, preferably, prevous, prior kantad = ancestor kantael = primitive, primary kantaenn = principle kantañ [ˈkẽn.tã] = first, main, next, soon kentannezer = pioneer, pathfinder kentanv = first name kentocʼh [ˈkẽntɔx] = rather, instead kerkent [ˈkɛrkɛnt] = immediately, as soon as

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kéntus, from *ken- (to arise, begin) [Source]. Words from the same roots possibly include begin, recent in English, beginnen (to begin, commence, start) in German, cenau (cub, pup, whelp, rascal) in Welsh, cana (cub, whelp) in Irish, szczenię (puppy, cub) in Polish, and reciente (recent) in Spanish [Source].
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Each & Every

24th July 2025 By Simon

Words for each, every, all and related things in Celtic languages.

Each & Every

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷākʷos = everyone, everybody, each, every
Transalpine Gaulish	papos = each, every (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cách, cach [kax] = each, every, all, everyone cach la céin = one at a time cechtar = both, each
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cach, cech [kax / kex] = each, every, all, cách, cach = the one, each, everyone, all, the rest cechtar = each (of), both (of), either (of)
Irish (Gaeilge)	gach [ɡax / ɡɑx] = every, each, everything gach rud = everything gach aon, gach uile = every gach aon duine = each, every, person, everybody gach bliain, gach uile bhliain = every year ceachtar [ˈcaxt̪ˠəɾˠ] = either, one or other of two
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	gach [gax] = every, each, all, per gach a chèile = each other gach bliadhna = every year, annually gach dùrachd = best regards, yours sincerely gach pearsa = per capita gach ràith = every season, seasonally, every quarter, quarterly gach rud = everything gach uile [gax ulə] = every, each
Manx (Gaelg)	dagh [dax] = each, every, both, singular gagh = each, every dagh blein, gagh blein = annually, yearly dagh laa, gagh laa = daily, every day gagh-laa = ordinary dagh ooilley, dagh un = every dagh unnane = every one dagh ynnyd, dagh ooilley ard, dagh ooilley raad = everywhere dagh ooilley nhee = everything dagh ooilley phersoon = everybody dagh ooilley raad = everywhere cagh = all, everyone, everybody cagh elley = everyone else, rest cagh yt cheilley = reciprocal
Proto-Brythonic	pọb, pāpos = every, each (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	paup = every, each
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pop, pob = every, each, all, all manner of, every type of pobed = entirety pobua, pop wa, pob va = everywhere, every place pob uann, popmann, pop mann = everywhere, every place, every part pob un, pob vn, pobun everyone, everybody, each one, every (single) one, all
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pob [poːb] = every, each, all, all manner of, every type of pob dim, popeth = everything pobfa, pob fa = everywhere, every place pob lle poblle = every place, everywhere poblleath, pobmanrwydd = ubiquity, omnipresence pobman, pob man = everywhere, every place, every part pobun, pob un everyone, everybody, each one, every (single) one, all
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pép, péb = every one pob, póp, pôb, pôp, pûb, pûp = every, all pop, pób = every, each pepynag, pepenag = whatsoever, whatever
Cornish (Kernewek)	peub, pob = all, everybody, everyone pub = each, every pub eur = always pub huni = everybody, everyone pub le = everywhere pub pres, pub prys, pub termyn = always, all the time pub tra, puptra = everything pub dedhyek, pubdedhyek = daily pubonan, pubonen = everybody
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	pop = each, every
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	pep = each, every pep vnan = each and every, everybody, everyone
Breton (Brezhoneg)	pep [pep] = each, every a bep eil = alternatively in turns bemdez [ˈbɛmde(s)] = every day bemnoz [ˈbɛmnos] = every night pep hini, pep unan = each and every, everybody, everyone (a) pep lec’h = everywhere pep tro = every time

Etymology: either from Proto-Indo-European *kʷo-h₃kʷ-os, from *kʷós (which, what) and *h₃kʷ-os (to see), or from PIE *kʷeh₂-kʷos [Source]. Words from the same roots possibly include how in English, hoe (how) in Dutch, hve (how, like as) in Icelandic, con (with, together) in Italian, com (with, against, together) in Portuguese, cu in Romanian, and cual (like, as, in the manner of) in Spanish [Source].
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Proto-Celtic	*olyos = all
Gaulish	ollos = everything, everyone (?)
Old Irish (Goídelc)	(h)uile, (h)ule [(h)ˈulʲe] = all, whole
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	uile [ˈulʲə] = all, every, the whole, everyone
Irish (Gaeilge)	uile [ˈɪlʲə / ˈɛlʲə] = all, every, whole, wholly, entirely uilechoiteann = general, universal uilechumhachtach = omnipotent, almighty uilefheasach = omniscient uilefhóinteach = all-purpose uileghabhálach = comprehensive, compendious, exhaustive uileláithreach = omnipresent, ubiquitous uiliteach = omnivorous
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	uile [ulə] = all, every, entire, total uil-fhiosrach = all-knowing, omniscient uile-amasach [ɯl aməsəx] = all-purpose uile-bhiast = monster uile-chinnteachd = surety, certainty uile-choitcheann [ulə xɔhdʲçən̪ˠ] = universal uileas [uləs] = all, every
Manx (Gaelg)	ooilley [ulʲə / ulʲu] = all, whole, entire, everyone, everybody ooilley cooidjagh all together ooilley kiart = all right, alright, OK ooilley dy lieragh = altogether ooilley mygeart = all around, everywhere, round about, rampant ooilley-niartal = almighty ooilley smaghtagh = totalitarian
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	hol = all, the whole, everything, everyone
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	oll, holl = all, the whole, everything, everyone, holla()l hollaul, hollawl, hollaỽl = whole, complete, entire holl gyuoethaỽc, hollgyuoethauc, hollgyuoethawc = almighty, omnipotent, all-powerful
Welsh (Cymraeg)	holl, oll [hoːɬ] = all, the whole, everything, everyone, entire, complete, total, completely, entirely oll yn oll = all in all (h)ollfydol = cosmic, universal, global (h)ollgyfoethog = almighty, omnipotent, all-powerful (h)ollol = whole, complete, entire (h)olloldeb, hollolrwydd = universality, generality (h)ollwybodol = omniscient, all-knowing, know-alls (h)ollysydd = omnivore
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	oll, ol = all, every olgallusec, olgalluster = almighty
Cornish (Kernewek)	oll = all, every, entirely, everything oll termyn = enduring, etermal, everlasting olldalghus = comprehensive, global ollgallos = omnipotence ollgallosek, ollgallojek = almighty ollgemmyn, ollgebmyn = general ollgompassus = holistic ollvys, ollves = universe ollvysel, ollvesel = global, universal
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	oll = everything, everyone
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	holl, hol, oll = everything, everyone
Breton (Brezhoneg)	holl [ɔl] = everything, everyone, completely, totally holl-razh = completely hollad = total hollat = global, total hollbad = perpetual, permanent hollegezh = generality hollegour [ɔˈleːɡur] = generalist hollek [ˈɔlːek] = general, uncountable hollved [ˈɔlvet] = universe

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *h₂olyos, from *h₂el- (beyond, other) [source]. Words from the same roots include altro (other, another, more, further) in Italian, autre (another) in French, otro (other, another) in Spanish, allur (all, everybody) in Icelandic, al (all, any) in Danish, and all and alter(native) in English [source]

Barrels, Tuns & Casks

16th July 2025 By Simon

Words for barrel and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	bairille = barrel
Irish (Gaeilge)	bairille [ˈbˠaɾʲəlʲə] = barrel
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	baraill [barɪl̪ʲ] = barrel, cask barailte [barɪldʲ] = barrel, cask
Manx (Gaelg)	barrel, barril = barrel
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	baryl, baril, balir = barrel(ful), cask(ful), butt, belly barileit, barrileid = barrelful, caskful
Welsh (Cymraeg)	baril, barel = barrel(ful), cask(ful), butt, belly barilo, barelu = to barrel, cask, resemble a barrel, drink a barrelful barilaid, barelaid = barrelful, caskful barilaidd = barrel-like, barrel-shaped barilan, barilen = small barrel or cask, keg barilwr, barilydd = cooper, tippler
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	balliar = a hogshead, tun, barrel
Cornish (Kernewek)	balyer = barrel
Middle Breton	barill, baril = barrel bariillat = contents of a barrel
Breton (Brezhoneg)	barilh [ˈbɑː.rilj / ˈbɑː.riʎ] = barrel barilhad = contents of a barrel

Etymology: from Middle English barrel(l) (barrel), Anglo-Norman baril (small barrel), or Old French bar(e)il (barrel), which is of uncertain origin [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	tunna = barrel, cask
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	tunna, tonna = tun, cask, barrel tunnaid = to store in casks
Irish (Gaeilge)	tonna = tun
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	tunn [tũːn̪ˠ] = tun, barrel, put into a barrel, decant tonnadair [tɔn̪ˠədɪrʲ] = tunner, barrel funnel tunnadh [tun̪ˠəɣ] = (act of) tunning, barrelling, putting into a barrel, decanting
Manx (Gaelg)	tun = tun tunning = tun, tunning thunney = ton, tun
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	twn = tun tunnell, tynnell, tunel = tun, large cask, large barrel, vat tunellho, tunella = to tun, barrel, cask
Welsh (Cymraeg)	twn = tun tunnell = tun, large cask, large barrel, vat, ton(ne) tunnellu, tunellio = to tun, barrel, cask tunnelliad = a tunning, barrelling, casking
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	tonnel = a cask
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	tonell = tun, barrel
Breton (Brezhoneg)	tonell = tun, barrel, belly tonellad = contents of a tun or barrel toneller = cooper tonellerezh = cooperage

Etymology: from Latin tunna (tun, box), probably from Gaulish *tondā, from Proto-Celtic *tondā (surface, skin) [source].

A tun in English is a large cask, an oblong vessel bulging in the middle, like a pipe or puncheon, and girt with hoops; a wine cask or fermenting vat. Related words include tonne (1000kg) in English, ton (tun, barrel, cask) in Dutch, Tonne (tun, barrel, drum) in German, and tonneau (ton, barrel) in French [source].

Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	casc = cask
Irish (Gaeilge)	casca = cask
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	casg [kasg] = cask
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	casc = cask
Welsh (Cymraeg)	casg(en) [kasɡ] = cask casgennu = to cask casgennaid = caskful, contents of a cask

Etymology: from English cask (tun, box), from Middle French casque (helmet, hard hat), from Spanish casco (surface, skin), from cascar (to split), from Latin quassō (to shake, quake, wave), from quatiō (I share or agitate), from Proto-Italic *kʷatjō (to shake) [source].

Who?

11th July 2025 By Simon

Words for who and related things in Celtic languages.

Who?

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kʷei = who
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cía, ce, ci, cia = who? what? where? how? although, if cía airet? = how long? cía airm? = where? cía chruth? = how? cía méit? = how many? how much?
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cía, cia, cá = who? what? how? where? cia airm? = what place? where? cia eret? cia airet? = how long?
Irish (Gaeilge)	cé? [keː] = who? whom? cén? [ceːnˠ] = what? which? cén áit? = where? at what place? cén chaoi? = how? in what whay? cén dóigh? = how? in what way? cén fáth? = why? for what reason? cén uair? = when? at what time? cér(b)? = who is? cér(bh)? = who was?
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cò [koː] = who(m)? where? ge be cò = whoever, whosoever cia? [kʲa] = how? what? which? who? cia mheud? [kʲaˈviəd] = how many? cia ás? [kʲaˈas] = whence? where from? cia minig? = how often? cia fhada? [kʲaˈadə] = how long? cia airson? = why?
Manx (Gaelg)	quoi [kwəi] = who? whom? which, whichever, who quoi erbee = who(so)ever, whom(so)ever quoi s’lesh = whose quoi jeu? = which one?
Proto-Brythonic	*puɨ = who (?)
Old Welsh (Kembraec)	pui = what
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	pwy, puy = who(m), whose, what, which, how pwy … pynac = whichever, whatever
Welsh (Cymraeg)	pwy [puːɨ̯ / pʊi̯] = who(m), whose, what, which, how pwy bynnag = who(so)ever, whichever, what(so)ever pwy … bynnag = whichever, whatever pwyma, pwyna = what-d’you-call-him/her
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	pyw, pu = who, whom, which pywpenag, pwy-penag, piwha bennac = whosoever
Cornish (Kernewek)	piw [piˑʊ] = who piw penag / pynag [piˑʊ] = whoever
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	piu = who
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	piu = who
Breton (Brezhoneg)	piv [ˈpiw] = who piv bennak = whoever piv din-me = thing, thingamajig, whatstheirface (a person whose name is unknown)

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kʷís (who, what, which, that) [source]. Words from the same root include how, whether and status quo in English, hoe (how) in Dutch, hver (every, each, everyone) in Danish, qui (who, whom, which, that) in French, chi (who, whom, whoever) in Italian, com (with, against, alongside, together) in Portuguese, and który (what, which, that, who) in Polish [source].

Wee Beasties

3rd July 20253rd July 2025 By Simon

Today we’re looking at the words for flies, gnats, midges and other wee beasties in Celtic languages.

Words marked with an * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kulis = fly
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cuil [kulʲ] = fly, flea, gnat minchuil = midge
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cuil, cúil = fly, flea, gnat cuilech, cuilig = flea-ridden cuileóc, cuileóg [ˈkulʲoːɡ] = fly
Irish (Gaeilge)	cuil = fly cuileog [kəˈlʲoːɡ / ˈkilʲoːɡ] = fly cuil Bhealtaine = may-fly cuil chrónáin = bluebottle
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cuil [kul] = fly (insect) cuileag [kulag] = fly (insect / for fishing) cuileagach [kulagəx] = pertaining to or abounding in flies cuileag-bheag, cuileag-mheanbh, cuileag-mhìn = Highland midge (culicoides impunctatus)
Manx (Gaelg)	quill = fly, gnat, midge quaillag = fly, housefly
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	kylyon = flies kylyonyn = fly
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cylionyn, cylionen fly, housefly, bluebottle, wasp, gnat cylion [ˈkəljɔn] = flies, etc cylionwr = fly-catcher
Old Cornish	kelionen = fly
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	celionen = fly
Cornish (Kernewek)	kelyonen = fly kelyon = flies
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	keleon = flies
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	quelyenenn, quelyenen = fly quelyen = flies quelyenec = (a place) abounding in flies
Breton (Brezhoneg)	kelien, kelion [ˈkɛ.ljɛn] = flies kelienenn = fly kelienek = (a place) abounding in flies

Etymology: possibly from Proto-Indo-European *ḱuH-ló- (?), which is also the root of culex (gnat, midge, mosquito) in Latin, and cúlex (mosquito) in Catalan, and kulo (gnat) in Esperanto [source].

In Welsh chwiw(i)ad is small fly or midge, and a gnat or midge is propriad or titiad. Midge or gnat is gwibesen in Cornish, and c’hwibu or mouch in Breton.

For more words for insects, etc, see the Celtiadur post Animals.

Memorable Memories

27th June 202527th June 2025 By Simon

Today we’re looking at the words for memory, to remember and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with an * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kom-men- = memory
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cuimne = memory cuimnigidir = to remember, recall cuman = remembered, memorable
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cuimne, cumhna, coimne = memory, remembrance, memorial cuimmech, cuimhneach, cuimneach = mindful, remembering, aware, remembered, memorable, famous cuman, cumhuin = remembered, memorable
Irish (Gaeilge)	cuimhne [ˈkiːnʲə / ˈkɨ̃vʲnʲə] = memory cuimhneach = recollective, reflective, thoughtful cuimhneachán = commemoration, memento, souvenir cuimhneamh [ˈkiːnʲəvˠ] = remembrance, recollection, thought, conception, plan cuimhnigh [ˈkivʲnʲə / ˈkiːnʲɪɟ] = to remember, consider, think, remind, conceive cuimhnitheach = memorial díchuimhne = forgetfulness díchuimhneach = forgetful
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cuimhin [ku.in̪ʲ] = memory cuimhine [kɯ̃ĩn̪ʲə] = memory, recollection, remembrance cuimhneach [kɯ̃ĩn̪ʲəx] = mindful cuimhneachadh [kɯ̃ĩn̪ʲəxəɣ] = (act of) remembering, minding, remembrance, commemorating cuimhneachan [kɯ̃ĩn̪ʲəxan] = memorial, keepsake, memento, souvenir, commemoration, reminder cuimhneachd [kɯ̃ĩn̪ʲəxg] = mindfulness cuimhnich [kɯ̃ĩn̪ʲɪç] = (to) remember, mind, commemorate dìochuimhnich [dʲĩə̃xənɪç] = (to) forget
Manx (Gaelg)	cooinaght = memory, mind, memorial, remembrance, reminiscence, commemoration cooinaghtyn = to remember, commemorate cooinaghan = memorandum cooinaghtane = keepsake, memento, reminder, souvenir
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cob, cov, cow, cof = memory, mind, sense, remembrance, record, recollection, memorial, regards, mindful cofiad remembrance, memory, record, memorial, mind, thought
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cof [koːv] = memory, mind, sense, remembrance, record, recollection, memorial, regards, mindful cofair = record, memorial, motto, mnemonic cofeb = memorial, petition, memorandum, souvenir, memoir cofgar = mindful, having a retentive memory cofiad remembrance, memory, record, memorial, mind, thought cofio = to remember, remind, mention anghofio = to forget
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	cof, côf = remembrance, recollection, memory
Cornish (Kernewek)	kov [koːv] = memory, recollection kova = to remember kovadh = chronicle, record kovadha = to record kovnotya = to minute (a meeting) kovro = keepsake, memento, souvenir kovskrif = archive kovskrifa = to register
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	com, cam = memory
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	coff, couff, coun, coûn = memory, remembrance, recollection, mind couffhat, confat, coufat = to remember, recall, recollect
Breton (Brezhoneg)	koun [ˈkɛm.bɛr] = memory kounaat = to remember, recall, recollect kounadur = mention, reference, commemoration kounaer = memoirist kounerezh = = memory, the ability to remember

Etymology: from Proto-Celtic *kom- (with) and *men- (to think), from Proto-Indo-European *kom- (with) and *men- (to think, mind) [source]. Words from the same roots include monitor, money, mint, minion, monster and admonish in English, moneda (coin, currency) in Spanish, and μνήμη (mními – memory) in Greek [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc)	mebair = memory
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	mebair, mebar, memur, memor, mebur = recollection, memory, remembered mebrach, meabhrach = remembering, mindful, intelligent, quick-witted mebraigid, memraigh, meabhraigh = to commit to memory, to learn, rehearse, recite, record devise ainmebair = forgetfulness coimmebair = commemoration
Irish (Gaeilge)	meabhair [mʲauɾʲ / mʲoːɾʲ] = mind, memory, consciousness, awareness, reason, sensation, feeling, sense, meaning meabhrach = mindful, reflective, thoughtful, intelligent, conscious, aware meabhrachán = memorial, record meabhraigh = to commit to memory, remember, meditate, reflect, perceive, sense meabhraíocht = consciousness, awareness, thought, intelligence meabhrán = memorandum meabhránaí = day-dreamer, registrar meabhrú = memorization, meditation, reflection, perception, feeling
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	meomhair [mjo.ɪrʲ] = memory, memorandum, (act of) thinking meòmhraich [mjɔːrɪç] = (to) ponder, think of something, consider, contemplate, deliberate meòmhrachadh [mjɔːrəxəɣ] = pondering, thinking, considering, contemplating, deliberating meòmhrachan [mjɔ̃ːrəxan] = memo(randum), note meòmhrachail [mjɔ̃ːrəxal] = comtemplative

Etymology: from Latin memoria (memory, remembrance), from memor (mindful, remembering), either from Proto-Indo-European *(s)mer- (to think, remember), or from Proto-Italic *memnos, from Proto-Indo-European *me-mn-os-, from *men- (to think, mind, spiritual activity) [source].

Gnawing Bites

20th June 2025 By Simon

Today we’re looking at the words for chew, gnaw, bite and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with an * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*knāyeti = to bite, chew
Old Irish (Goídelc)	cnaïd = to gnaw
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	cnaïd, cnaídid = to gnaw away, consume, disperse cnaí(ded), cnaidedh = gnawing, wasting cnaí(te), cnaoite, cnaeite = wasted, corroded cnám, cnáma, cnámh = (act of) gnawing, wasting, laying waste (to), ravaging con-cnaí, cocnaid = to chew, masticate, gnaw (away)
Irish (Gaeilge)	cnaí = gnawing, corrosion (of body), wasing, decline cnaígh = to gnaw, corrode cogain [ˈkɔɡənʲ / ˈkaɡənʲ] = to chew, masticate, gnaw, grind, slur, mutter cogaint = mastication cogantach = chewing, masticatory cogantóir = chewer, masticator guma coganta = chewing gum
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	cagainn [kagɪn̪ʲ] = to chew, gnaw, masticate cagnachail [kagnəxal] = chewy cagnadh [kagnəɣ] = chewing, gnawing, masticating, mastication caigneadh [kagʲn̪ʲəɣ] = chewing, gnawing, masticating, mastication
Manx (Gaelg)	caigney = to chew, file, gnaw, mumble, munch, rasp, chewing caignee = gnawing, chewing credjuagh = believer, disciple, believing, believable caigneyder = chewer, gnawer, rodent
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cno = a biting, gnawing, consuming, languishing cnofa, cnoua = biting, gnawing, gripes, ache, colic, remorse cnoi, knoyn, knoi = to bite, gnaw, chew, masticate, torment, worry
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cno = a biting, gnawing, consuming, languishing cnoaf, cnoi [knɔi̯] = to bite, gnaw, chew, masticate, torment, worry, fret, vex, gripe, ache, ruminate, meditate cno = a biting, gnawing, consuming, languishing cno(e)ad = bite, chew, gnawing, mastication cnoawdr = gnawer, biter cnofa = biting, gnawing, gripes, ache, colic, remorse cnofil = rodent
Cornish (Kernewek)	knias = to chew knivil = rodent
Breton (Brezhoneg)	chagiñ [ˈkreː.dĩ] = to chew chaok [ʃok] = chewing chaokat [ˈʃokːat] = to chew, eat, masticate chaoker = chewer, masticator, big eater chaokerezh = mastication

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *kneh₂- (to bite, chew, scratch, scrape) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include Nut (groove, slit, slot) in German and knóti (to peel) in Lithuanian [source].

Proto-Celtic	brozdos, brasdu = point, tip
Old Irish (Goídelc)	brot [brod] = goad
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	brot, brud, brad = goad, spike brotad(h) = act of goading, urging brotchú = watchdog, bloodhound, herd-dog, mastiff
Irish (Gaeilge)	brod = goad broideadh = = to prod, nudge, bite
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	brod [brɔd] = goad, prickle, sting strong>brodadh [brodəɣ] = rousing, stirring, goading, poking, prompt
Manx (Gaelg)	brod = goad, jab, nudge, prick, spur, stimulus broddagh = jabbing, stab wound broddey = to goad, jab, nudge, poke
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	brath [braːθ] = a bite, biting brathu, brathv, brathy = to bite, sting, wound, pierce brathedig, brathedic = bitten, wounded, stabbed, pierced
Welsh (Cymraeg)	brath [braːθ] = a bite, biting, stinging, prick, scratch, wounding, piercing, stabbing, wound, injury brathu = to bite, sting, wound, pierce brathedig = bitten, wounded, stabbed, pierced brathgi = biting dog, dog given to snapping, surly man brath(i)ad = a bite, biting, sting, wounding brathiadol = biting, hurtful
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	brathcy = a mastiff, hound (“a biting dog”)
Cornish (Kernewek)	brath = bite bratha = to bite brathek = caustic

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *bʰresdʰh₁-, from *bʰers- (top, tip, point) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots possibly include barley, bristle and brush in English, barr (pine needles) in Icelandic, farine (flour, feed) in French, bara (bread) in Welsh, barr (tip, head, point, top, summit) in Irish, and Barsch (perch [fish]) in German [source].

Proto-Celtic	gramman, gremmen- = seizure, grasp
Old Irish (Goídelc)	greimm, graimm [ˈɡʲr͈ʲemʲ] = grasp, authority, power
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	greimm, graimm = grasp, authority, sway, power, seizure, hold, grasp, bond, obligation, duty, service, profit, use, advantage gremanach, greamanach = biting gremmaigid, greamaighid = to hold fast, cleave, stick, seize, grasp, obtain, secure
Irish (Gaeilge)	greim [ɟɾʲəimʲ / ɟɾʲɪmʲ] = to grip, grasp, hold
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	greim [grʲɤim =] = bit(e), morsel, clutch, grasp, grip, hold, catch, stitc, seizure, pneumonia greimeachadh [grʲeməxəɣ] = gripping, grasping, clutching, clinging, grappling greimean [grʲeman] = small bite, small morsel
Manx (Gaelg)	greim = bite, catch, clutch, grab, grapple, grasp, grip, hold, snatch greimmagh = clutching, grasping, gripping, snappy, sticky greimmey = to bite, catch, clutch, grab, grip, hold

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *gʰrebʰ- (to seize, grab, dig, rake) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots possibly include grab, grave, groove and grub in English, graven (to dig, search for information) in Dutch, graben (to dig, burrow) in German, and grabić (to rake, rob, plunder) in Polish [source].

Credible Belief

12th June 202512th June 2025 By Simon

Today we’re looking at the words for belief, religion and related things in Celtic languages.

Words marked with an * are reconstructions.

Proto-Celtic	*kreddīti = to believe
Old Irish (Goídelc)	creitid [ˈkʲrʲedʲiðʲ] = to believe creitem = belief, faith
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg)	creitid, craitid = to believe, trust, give allegiance creitem = (act of) believing, being converted; belief, faith, religion; credit, credibility, good standing
Irish (Gaeilge)	creid [cɾʲɛdʲ / cɾʲɪdʲ] = to believe, give credence to, suppose creideamh = belief, faith, religion, creed creidiúint = credit creidiúnach = creditable, reputable, respectable creidiúnacht = creditableness, respectability creidiúnaí = creditor creidmheach = believer, believing, faithful creidte = credible
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig)	creid [krʲedʲ] = (to) believe, suppose creideadh [krʲedʲəɣ] = belief, creed, faith creideamh [krʲedʲəv] = belief, creed, faith creideas [krʲedʲəs] = faith, credit, credibility, credence creideasachd [krʲedʲəsəxg] = credibility creideasaiche [krʲedʲəsɪçə] = creditor creidmheach [krʲedʲvəx] = believer
Manx (Gaelg)	cred [kredʲ] = to believe credjuagh = believer, disciple, believing, believable credjue = belief, creed, conviction, faith, religion
Proto-Brythonic	*krėdid = to believe
Middle Welsh (Kymraec)	cred, cret, kred = belief, creed, religion, faith credaduy, credadwy = credible, trustworthy, genuine, authentic, certain sure, believed credaw, credu, credv = to believe, have faith in, trust
Welsh (Cymraeg)	cred = belief, creed, religion, faith, trust, oath, promise, integrity, fidelity, credit credadwy = credible, trustworthy, genuine, authentic, certain sure, believed crediniaeth = belief, opinion, religion, creed, faith, confidence, credulity credu [ˈkrɛdɨ̞ / ˈkreːdi] = to believe, have faith in, trust, give credit, be disposed, feel inclined
Middle Cornish (Cernewec)	cred, crêd, cresy, cregy = belief, faith credgyans, credzhans, cregyans = the Creed, belief
Cornish (Kernewek)	krysi, kreji = to believe, think krysadow, kryjus = credible kryjans, krejyans = belief, religion kryjyk = religious
Old Breton (Brethonoc)	critim = to believe
Middle Breton (Brezonec)	cridiff, credyt, credaff = to believe
Breton (Brezhoneg)	krediñ [ˈkreː.dĩ] = to believe, dare kredad = credit kredañ = credenza, wardrobe kredapl = believable, likely kredekaat = to credit kredenn = belief, superstition kreder = believer, creditor kredig, kredik = credulous kredoniezh = caution

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *ḱreddʰh₁-éh₂ / *ḱréddʰh₁eti (to believe, trust) from *ḱḗr (heart) [source]. Words from the same PIE roots include credible, credenza, credit, credo and incredible, in English, credere (to believe, think) in Italian, croire (to believe) in French, and creer (to believe, think, reckon) in Spanish [source].

Celtiadur

Exploring connections between Celtic languages

Category: Middle Welsh (Kymraec)

Swearing Oaths

Ashen Embers

First Things First

Each & Every

Barrels, Tuns & Casks

Who?

Wee Beasties

Memorable Memories

Gnawing Bites

Credible Belief