Category: Welsh (Cymraeg)

Tables

By Simon

Today we’re looking at words for table in Celtic languages.

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Proto-Celtic *klārom / *klāros = plank, board, table
Old Irish (Goídelc) clár [klaːr] = board, plank, stave, gameboard, table, writing tablet, level, expanse
Irish (Gaeilge) clár [klˠɑːɾˠ/klˠæːɾˠ] = board, stave, table, counter, flat surface, plane, platform, list, programme
clárach = made of boards, wooden, flat, broad, splay (of feet)
cláraigh = to flatten, beat, belabour, tabulate, list, register, enrol
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) clàr [kl̪ˠaːr] = smooth surface, stave, staff (in music), board, plank, agenda, register, schedule, disk, chart, record, tablet, cover, lid, table, shallow wooden plate
clàraidh = wooden partition, wooden floor, decking
clàradh = record(ing), enroling, registering, enrolment, registration
clàrach = tabular, bare, bald
Manx (Gaelg) claare = stave, board, play bill, table (list), batten, platter, bar counter, programme
claaragh = partition
claaraghey = index, enrolment, enrol, programme
Proto-Brythonic *klọr [klɔːrˑ] = board, cover, plank
Middle Welsh (Kymraec) cláúr / klawr = cover, lid, shutter, valve, board, plank, face, surface, plate
Welsh (Cymraeg) clawr [klau̯r] = cover, lid, plank
clawrddor = hatch, trap-door
clawr ffenestr = shutter
clawr llyfr cover of a book
clawr lygad = eyelid
clawr tawlbwrdd = chess board, draught board
Breton (Brezhoneg) kleur = stilt peg

Etymology: possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *kleh₂ro- (plank), from *kleh₂ (to cut) [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc) bord = table
Irish (Gaeilge) bórd [bˠoːɾˠd̪ˠ / bˠəuɾˠd̪ˠ] = board, table; board (organisation), council; border; side (of ship), gunwale
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) bòrd [bɔːr̪ˠd] = table, deck, board, plank; board (organisation)
Manx (Gaelg) boayrd = shelf of rock, table, plank, board
Welsh (Cymraeg) bwrdd [bʊrð] / bwrd = table, board; food and drink, daily sustenance, hospitality; board, body of councillors, committe; deck, board; side of a ship; board, plank
Cornish (Kernewek) bordh = board, table
bord = board
Breton (Brezhoneg) bourzh = side (of a boat)

Etymology: from the Old English bord (board, plank, table, shield, the side of a ship), from the Proto-West Germanic *bord (board, plank), from the Proto-Germanic *burdą (board, plank, table) [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, teanglann.ie, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionnaire Favereau

Irish (Gaeilge) tábla [ˈtaːblɒ] = table
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) tàbla [taːbl̪ˠə] = table
Manx (Gaelg) taabyl = table
Welsh (Cymraeg) tabl = table, board (for games); inscribed tablet, writing-tablet; picture, painting; genealogical table; table (of figures or facts)
Cornish (Kernewek) tabel = table
Breton (Brezhoneg) taol = table

Etymology: from the Latin tabula (board, plank, table) [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Another word for table in Cornish is moos, the origins of which are not known.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, logainm.ie, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Gerlyvyr Cernewec, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, Le dictionnaire diachronique du breton, Geriafurch, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

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World & Existence

By Simon

Words for world, existence and life in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic *bitus = world
Old Irish (Goídelc) bith [bʲiθ] = world
Irish (Gaeilge) bith [bʲɪh / bʲɪ] = world, existence
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) bith [bih] = life, existence, being, living; the world
Manx (Gaelg) beays = being, existence
Proto-Brythonic *bɨd [ˈbɨːd] = world
Old Welsh bid = world
Middle Welsh (Kymraec) byd = world
Welsh (Cymraeg) byd [bɨːd / biːd] = world
Old Cornish bit, bys= world
Cornish (Kernewek) bys [bɪːz] = world
Old Breton bit, bet = world
Breton (Brezhoneg) bed = world

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, teanglann.ie, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionnaire Favereau

Old Irish (Goídelc) saegul = lifetime, world
Irish (Gaeilge) saol [sˠeːlˠ / sˠiːlˠ] = life, lifetime; time; world
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) saoghal [sɯː.əl̪ˠ] = world, life(span), lifetime
Manx (Gaelg) seihll [seːl / sɯːl / siːl] = age, existence, life, lifetime, span; public, world

Etymology: from the Latin saeculum (race, breed; generation, lifetime; age, time; century; worldliness; the world) [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, teanglann.ie, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionnaire Favereau

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Food

By Simon

Words for food in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic *bētom = food
Old Irish (Goídelc) bíad / bïad [bʲiːa̯ð] = food
Irish (Gaeilge) bia [bʲiə] = food, substance
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) biadh [biəɣ] = food, fare, repast, viand, victual, feed, a meal
Manx (Gaelg) bee [biː] = diet, feed, food, nourishment, provisions
Proto-Brythonic *buɨd [ˈbuɨ̯d] = food
Middle Welsh (Kymraec) bwyt = food
Welsh (Cymraeg) bwyd [buːɨ̯d / bʊi̯d] = food, nourishment, meat, victuals, provisions
Old Cornish buit = food
Cornish (Kernewek) bos / boys [ˈbɔːz] = food, meal, fare
Middle Breton boet, bouet = food
Breton (Brezhoneg) boued = food, eat, edible, bait, flesh (of fish), marrow, pulp, substance

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *gʷeyh₃tom, from *gʷeyh₃- (to live) [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, teanglann.ie, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionnaire Favereau

Welsh Rarebit

Death

By Simon

Words for death in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic *bāstom / bāssom = death
Old Irish (Goídelc) bás [baːs] = death
Irish (Gaeilge) bás [bˠɑːsˠ / bˠæːsˠ] = death
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) bàs [baːs] = death, decease, demise
Manx (Gaelg) baase [bɛːs] = death

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *gʷeh₂- (to go) [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, On-Line Manx Dictionary, Teaglann.ie

Proto-Celtic *marwos = dead
Old Irish (Goídelc) marb = dead; mortified, insensible, spiritually dead; inanimate; stagnant (water)
Irish (Gaeilge) marbh [ˈmˠɑɾˠəvˠ / ˈmˠarˠuː / ˈmˠarˠu] = dead person, death, defunct
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) marbh [marav] = dead person, the dead
Manx (Gaelg) marroo = dead, lifeless, inanimate, glassy (look), muggy, dull, dud, stagnant, defunct, mortified, slaughtered, departed, deceased, killed, extinct
merriu = dead men, departed souls
Proto-Brythonic *marw = dead
Welsh (Cymraeg) marw = dead, deceased, inanimate
marwolaeth = death, decease, demise; suffering, tribulation; deadly plague or pestilence, fatal disease
Cornish (Kernewek) mernans = death
Breton (Brezhoneg) marv = death

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *mer- (to die, disappear) [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionnaire Favereau

Proto-Celtic *ankus = death
Old Irish (Goídelc) éc = death
Irish (Gaeilge) éag = Death, numbness, powerlessness
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) eug [eːg] = death, Death, ghost, spectre
Middle Welsh (Kymraec) angheu = death
Welsh (Cymraeg) angau = death, decease, demise, annihilation, cessation, mortal danger
Old Cornish ancou = death
Cornish (Kernewek) ankow = death
Old/Middle Breton ancou = death
Breton (Brezhoneg) ankow = death

Etymology: from Proto-Indo-European *nek̂- (to perish, disappear) [source].

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, On-Line Manx Dictionary, Teaglann.ie, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionnaire Favereau

Age

By Simon

Words for age in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic *aiwestom = age, lifetime, era
Old Irish (Goídelc) áes [aːi̯s] = age, years; stage, period; era; lifetime
Irish (Gaeilge) aois [iːʃ] = age, length of life; old age; period, era
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) aois [ɯːʃ] = age, old age, antiquity
Manx (Gaelg) eash = eon, age, century; oldness, old age
Proto-Brythonic *oɨs = age
Old Welsh oit = time, period
Welsh (Cymraeg) oed [oːɨ̯d / ɔi̯d] = time, period, space (of time); life-span; age
oes [ˈoes] = age, long indefinite period; century; time, day(s); epoch
Old Cornish huis= age
Cornish (Kernewek) oos / ooj = age, period, epoch, era
Old Breton oit = age
Middle Breton oet = age
Breton (Brezhoneg) oad = age

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *h₂ey-w-es-to-, from *h₂ey- (age, eternity), which is also the root of the English words age and eon [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, teanglann.ie, Fockleyreen: Manx – English Dictionary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionnaire Favereau

Languages and Tongues

By Simon

Today we’re looking at the words for language and tongue and related things in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic *tangʷāss, tangʷāt = tongue
Old Irish (Goídelc) tengae [ˈtʲeŋɡe] = tongue, language
Irish (Gaeilge) teanga [ˈtʲaŋə / ˈtʲaŋɡə] = tongue, language
teangach = tongued, lingual, wordy, loquacious
teangachruthach = tongue-shaped, linguiform
teangaigh = to tongue (in music)
teangaire = interpreter
teangeolaí = linguist, expert in linguistics
teangeolaíocht = linguistics
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) teanga [tʲɛŋgə] = tongue, speech, spit (of land)
teangan = tongue
teangaidh = tongue, speech
teangach = abounding in tongues, loquacious, langued (in hearldry)
teangair = linguist, interpreter, orator, philologist
Manx (Gaelg) çhengey [ˈtʃɛnʲə] = bell-clapper, clasp, feather, strap-hinge; catch (of buckle); tongue; language, speech; utterance
çhengeyr çhyndaader = interpreter
çhengeyder = linguist
çhengoaylleeaght = linguistics
çhengey ny mayrey = mother tongue
daa-hengagh = bilingual
yl-çhengagh = polyglot
Proto-Brytonic *tau̯āt, *tavọd = tongue
Old Welsh tauawt = tongue, language
Middle Welsh (Kymraec) tauaut = tongue, language
Welsh (Cymraeg) tafod [ˈtavɔd / ˈtaːvɔd] = tongue, faculty of speech, power of expression; language, speech, dialect, accent
tafod aur = pleasant or witty talk, eloquence (“gold tongue”)
tafod bach = uvula
tafod cloch = clapper (of bell)
tafodiaeth = language, vernacular or native language, dialect, pronunciation, articulation, verbal expression
tafodi = to scold, rebuke, chide, berate, cheek, abuse (verbally), tongue (in music)
tafodiad = a scolding or berating, pronunciation
tafodwr = speaker, talker
Old Cornish tauot = language, tongue
Middle Cornish tawes = language, tongue
Cornish (Kernewek) taves = language, tongue
tavosa = to scold, tell off
tavosek = talkative, verbose
tavoseth = idiom, jargon
Old Breton tavod = tongue
Middle Breton teaut, teut = tongue
Breton (Brezhoneg) teod [ˈtɛwt] = tongue
teodel = oral
teodek = talkative, gossipy
teodyezh = speech, dialect, way of speaking
teodyezhañ = to speak
teodyezher = speaker

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s (tongue) [source].

Words from the same PIE root include: tongue and language in English, lingua (tongue, language) in Italian, язик [jɐˈzɪk] (tongue) in Ukrainian, and jazyk (tongue, language) in Czech and Slovak [source].

Proto-Celtic *yaxtī = language
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg) icht = race, people, tribe; province, district
Proto-Brythonic *jeiθ, *i̯ekti = tongue
Middle Welsh (Kymraec) ieith, yeith = language, nation, race
Welsh (Cymraeg) iaith [jai̯θ] = language, tongue; people, nation, race, tribe
ieithiadur = grammar
ieithio = to pronounce, proclaim, express
ieithog = having language or several languages, multilingual, polyglot
ieithydd = one who has thorough knowledge or command of a language or languages, linguist, grammarian, philologist, interpreter, speark, poet
ieithyddiaeth = linguistics, philology, grammar
ieithgi = one who is interested in the study of language (rather than of literature), philologist
Cornish (Kernewek) yeth [eːθ / jeːθ] = tongue, language
yeth le-usys = minority language
yethador = grammar
yethel = linguistic
yethonieth = linguistics
yethor, yethores = linguist
Middle Breton yez = language
Breton (Brezhoneg) yezh [ˈjeːs] = language
yezhadur = grammar
yezhadurel = grammatical
yezhel = linguistic
yezher = speaker
unyezher = unilingual
divyezher = bilingual
liesyezher = polyglot

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *yek- (to utter). It is uncertain if the Middle Irish word icht is cognate with the Brythonic words [source].

Words from the same PIE root include: joke and Yule in English, jul (Yule, Christmas) in Danish and Norwegian, juego (play, game, sport) in Spanish, and joc (game, play, dance) in Romanian [source].

Old Irish (Goídelc) bélrae [ˈbʲeːl͈re] = language, speech
bélrae Féne = legal language
bélrae na filed = acrane vocabulary, poetic language
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg) bérla(e) = speech, language
Irish (Gaeilge) béarla = speech (archaic)
béarlachas = Anglicism
béarlagair = jargon
béarlamhail = having command of language, fluent (archaic)
Béarla [ˈbʲeːɾˠl̪ˠə] = English (language)
Béarlóir = English speaker
Béarlóireacht = (act of) speaking English
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) Beurla [bjɤːr̪ˠl̪ˠə] = English (language)
Beurlachas = Anglicism
Beurla Leathann = Broad Scots
Manx (Gaelg) Baarle [bɛːᵈl] = English (language)
Baarlagh = of or pertaining to the English language
Baarlaghys = Anglicism
Baarleyr = English-speaker, anglophone
Baarle Albinagh = Scots, Lallans
Baarle Ghaelagh, Baarle Vanninagh = Anglo-Manx (language)
Baarle Heenagh = pidgin
Baarle chiart = the Queen’s English

Etymology: from the Old Irish bél (mouth) and -ra (collective suffix) [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Gerlyvyr Cernewec, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, Le dictionnaire diachronique du breton, Geriafurch, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

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Caves

By Simon

Caves, hollows and related words in Celtic languages.

Deeper in the cave

Proto-Celtic *oumā = cave
Old Irish (Goídelc) úam = cave
Irish (Gaeilge) uaimh [uəvʲ] = cave, souterrain, underground chamber, cellar, crypt, vault, den of thieves, pit
uaimheadóireacht = exploration of caves, potholing
uaimheolaí = speleologist
uaimheolaíocht = speleology
uaimheolaí = speleologist
uaimh ifrinn = pit of hell
uaimh ladrann = den of thieves
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) uamh [ũə̃v] / uaimh = cave, den, hollow, grave, grotto
uamh-thalmhainn = souterrain, underground passage
Manx (Gaelg) oghe = cave, oven
ooig = den, cavern, grotto, antar, pit, stope, hotbed, cave
ooig-oaylleeaght = speleology
Middle Welsh (Kymraec) guocof, guocob, gogof = cave
Welsh (Cymraeg) (g)ogof [ˈɔɡɔv / ˈoːɡɔv] = cave, cavern, grotto, cleft, cavity, den, lair
ogof l(l)adron = den of thieves
Cornish (Kernewek) gogow = cave, cavity

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *h₁ewn- (empty) [source].

Proto-Brythonic *fowyā = den, lair, cave
Middle Welsh (Kymraec) ffeu = den, lair, cave
Welsh (Cymraeg) ffau = den, lair, burrow, set, covert, cave
Cornish (Kernewek) fow = cave

Etymology: from the Latin fovea (pit, hole in the ground, snare) the Proto-Indo-European *bʰow- (pit, hole) [source].

Proto-Celtic *kow-sto- / *kuwo- = hollow, cavity
Old Irish (Goídelc) cúas = hollow, cavity
Middle Irish (Gaoidhealg) cúa = hollow, cavity
Irish (Gaeilge) cuas = cavity, hollow, recess, cove, creek
cuasach = cavernous, hollow, concave
cuasacht = concavity
cuasfhuinneog = bow-window
cuas-súileach = hollow-eyed
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) cuas [kuəs] = hollow, cavity, cave
cuasan = hole, cavity
Middle Welsh (Kymraec) cev, keu, kau = hollow, closed
Welsh (Cymraeg) cau = hollow, empty, sunken, fig. false, deceitful; enclosing, shut, closed; vacuum, cavity, inwards, bowels
yghau = closed, shut
Cornish (Kernewek) kew = hollow
Old Breton cau = covered
Middle Breton queu = covered
Breton (Brezhoneg) kew = hollow

Etymology from the Proto-Indo-European *ḱowh₁ós (hollow) from *ḱewH- (to swell) or *kewh₂- (vault, hole) [source].

The Breton word kavarn (cave, cavern, den, lair) comes from the same PIE root, probably via the Latin caverna (hollow, cavity, cave, cavern), from cavus (hollow, concave), frp, the Proto-Italic *kawos [source].

Other words in Breton for cave are groc’h, mougev and roc’h toull. There don’t appear to be any cave-related words that are cognate with the other Celtic languages.

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, Online Manx Dictionary, Teanglann.ie, eDIL – Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language, logainm.ie, In Dúil Bélrai English – Old Irish glossary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionaire Favereau, TermOfis, English – ProtoCeltic WordList (PDF), Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic

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Passes, Ways & Gaps

By Simon

Words for pass, way and track in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic *bolko- / *bolno = opening
Old Irish (Goídelc) belach [r͈oːd] = gap, pass, road, path
Irish (Gaeilge) bealach [bʲəˈl̪ˠɑx / ˈbʲalˠəx / ˈbʲalˠa(h)] = way, road, track, pass, passage, sound
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) bealach [bjaɫ̪əx] = (mountain) pass, access, detour, breach, gap, opening, inlet, gangway, tract, gateway
Manx (Gaelg) bollagh = way, route, road, lane
Welsh (Cymraeg) bwlch [bʊlχ] = breach, gap, notch, jag, break, flaw, rent, defect, want, loss; distress, crisis, predicament; opportunity; pass, defile, passage; trough between waves; battlement, embrasure, tower, turret
Cornish (Kernewek) bolgh = breach, gap, opening
Breton (Brezhoneg) boulc’h = road; opening, breakthrough; niche, slot

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, MacBain’s Dictionary, teanglann.ie, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Preder

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Breath

By Simon

Words for breath in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic *anatlā = breath
Old Irish (Goídelc) anál [ˈanaːl] = breathing, breath
Irish (Gaeilge) anáil [əˈnɑːl] = breath, air, influence
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) anail [anal] = breath, wind, pause, respite, rest
Manx (Gaelg) ennal = breath, wind
Proto-Brythonic *anadl = breath
Welsh (Cymraeg) anadl = breath, breathing, respiration.
Cornish (Kernewek) anal [‘anal / ‘ænɐ] = breath
Breton (Brezhoneg) anal = breath, breathing, inspiration, aiming, sighting

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *h₂enh₁- (to breathe) [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, teanglann.ie, On-line Manx Dictionary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionnaire Favereau

Names

By Simon

Words for name in Celtic languages.

Proto-Celtic *anman = name
Gaulish anuana = name
Primitive Irish ᚐᚅᚋ (anm) = name
Old Irish (Goídelc) ainmm, ainm [anʲmʲ] = name, reputation, repute, renown; noun
Irish (Gaeilge) ainm [ˈanʲəmʲ] = name, reputation, noun
Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) ainm [ɛnɛm] = name, denomination, title
Manx (Gaelg) ennym [ɛnɛm] = name, noun, epithet, designation, title of book, figurehead
Proto-Brythonic *anw [ˈanw] = name
Old Welsh anu = name
Middle Welsh (Kymraec) enw = name
Welsh (Cymraeg) enw [ˈɛnʊ / ˈeːnu] = name, appellation, appellative; title, denomination, term, name or title; noun
Cornish (Kernewek) hanow [‘hanɔʊ / ‘hænɔ] = name, noun, substantive
Middle Breton hanu, anff = name
Breton (Brezhoneg) anv [ˈɑ̃n.o] = name, noun

Etymology: from the Proto-Indo-European *h₁nómn̥ (name) [source].

Words marked with a * are reconstructions.

Sources: Wiktionary, Am Faclair Beag, teanglann.ie, On-line Manx Dictionary, Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru, Gerlyver Kernewek, Dictionnaire Favereau

Useful phrases

What’s your name?

  • Irish: Cén t-ainm atá ort? Cad is ainm duit? C’ainm atá ort?
  • Scottish Gaelic: Dè an t-ainm a th’ort
  • Manx: Cre’n ennym t’ort?
  • Welsh: Beth ydy dy enw di?
  • Cornish: Pyth yw dha hanow?
  • Breton: Petra eo da anv? Pe anv out?

My name is …

  • Irish: Is mise … / Mise … / … is ainm dom
  • Scottish Gaelic: Is mise …
  • Manx: Ta’n ennym orrym … / Mish …
  • Welsh: … dwi / … ydw i
  • Cornish: Ow hanow yw …
  • Breton: … eo ma anv

More phrases in:
Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish, Breton